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IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21
Course Code : IBO – 01
Course Title : International Business
Environment
Assignment Code : IBO – 01/TMA/2020-21
Coverage : All Blocks
Attempt all the questions.
Q-1 Critically examine the modern theory of international trade. 20
The contemporary theories of trade deviate from the assumptions of perfect competition and constant returns to scale made both in the classical and the neoclassical models. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 In the modern theories the market structure is either monopolistic or oligopolistic. In the former case a large number of producers produce goods that are not identical but differentiated in quality or design. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 In the latter case only a few producers serve the market with either identical products or differentiated products. The products which are just differentiated horizontally are similar in quality but different in design, like a red pen and a blue pen, white wine and red wine or wooden furniture and steel furniture. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Vertical product differentiation involves quality differences as in small cars and large cars, lf the products are horizontally differentiated they are produced by more or less the same technology. Vertical product differentiation would invariably mean that the technology varies with quality or type of the product.
Thus, Ohlin observes “International trade is but a special case of inter-local or inter-regional trade.” Hence, according to Ohlin, there is no need to have separate theory of international trade. He says that the same fundamental principle holds good of all trade, whether it is internal trade or international trade. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 The classical theory of comparative cost is based on the assumption of comparative immobility of the factors of production as between different countries. But Ohlin points out that this immobility is to be found even in different regions of the same country.
According to Ohlin, the immediate cause of international
trade is the difference in commodity prices which in turn is due to the
differences in factor prices. Goods are purchased because it cheaper to buy
them from outside the country.
The establishment of the rate of exchange between the two countries facilitates the comparison between the commodity prices prevailing in the two countries. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Thus, in Ohlin’s opinion there are no fundamental differences but only quantitative differences between inter-regional and international trade. Ohlin’s theory represents a departure from the classical theory and marks a great improvement on it.
One may easily check that the technology described above is a departure from the constant returns to scale we have been using so far. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 For example the output is doubled from 1 to 2 as labour is less than doubled from 3 to 5. Suppose that there are two similar goods, A and B being produced by the above technology, the economy has 10 units of labour. The consumers will consume the two goods in 1:1 proportion. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Therefore the labour force will have to be equally divided in the production of the two goods and 2 units each of A and B will be produced and consumed in the economy. Now suppose there is another economy with the same technology to produce A and B having 10 units of labour.
Then it is quite easy to see that one economy produces only A and the other produces only B and then trade with each other than the consumers in each country will be able to consume 3.5 units each of A and B and be better off than autarky. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 This is an example of trade taking place between two countries having the same technology and factor endowments simply due to economy of scale. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 But there is difference in the nature of trade. In the earlier models the products were different and produced by different technologies and the trade was between two industries, such as one country exporting cloth and importing wheat. This kind of trade is called interindustry trade. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 But in the contemporary models trade is intra-industry, i.e., in the same industry located in two different countries. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 It is like one country exporting white wine and importing red wine - both goods requiring the same technology as in the above example. It turns out that a very substantial part of world trade is intra-industry in nature which shows the importance of modem theories in the contemporary world.
We are sure of this because A will not accept less than 20 tooth-brushes for 20 kg. of sugar and B will not offer more than 30 tooth-brushes for it, under any circumstances. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 In between these two limits, the exact rate of exchange will be decided by the relative bargaining power of A and 3. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 The country which is more anxious to secure the goods of the other will be in a weaker bargaining position, and vice versa. In other words, the gain from international trade will be shared according to the reciprocal demand, i.e., the elasticity of the demand of each country for the other’s goods. The ratio of exchange of demand will be anywhere between 20 kg. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 of sugar to 21—29 tooth-brushes. The gain is thus shared by both countries. But the bigger share goes to that country which has an elastic demand for imports and whose exports have an inelastic demand.
Q-2 What do
you mean by globalization? Describe major forces of globalization with suitable
examples. 4+16
Globalization means the speedup of movements and exchanges (of human beings, goods, and services, capital, technologies or cultural practices) all over the planet. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 One of the effects of globalization is that it promotes and increases interactions between different regions and populations around the globe. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 To Understand Better , According to WHO, globalization can be defined as ” the increased interconnectedness and interdependence of peoples and countries. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 It is generally understood to include two inter-related elements: the opening of international borders to increasingly fast flows of goods, services, finance, people and ideas; and the changes in institutions and policies at national and international levels that facilitate or promote such flows.”
Globalization is the word used to describe the growing interdependence of the world’s economies, cultures, and populations, brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services, technology, and flows of investment, people, and information. Countries have built economic partnerships to facilitate these movements over many centuries. But the term gained popularity after the Cold War in the early 1990s, as these cooperative arrangements shaped modern everyday life. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 This guide uses the term more narrowly to refer to international trade and some of the investment flows among advanced economies, mostly focusing on the United States. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 The wide-ranging effects of globalization are complex and politically charged. As with major technological advances, globalization benefits society as a whole, while harming certain groups. Understanding the relative costs and benefits can pave the way for alleviating problems while sustaining the wider payoffs.
(a) Advancement of Technologies:
Refers to one of the crucial factors of globalization. Since 1990s, enhancement in telecommunications and Information Technology (IT) has marked remarkable improvements in access of information and increase in economic activities. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 This advancement in technologies has led to the growth of various sectors of economies throughout the world.
Apart from this, the advancement in technology and improved communication network has facilitated the exchange of goods and services, resources, and ideas, irrespective of geographical location. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 In this way, advanced technologies have led to economic globalization.
(b) Reduction in Cross-trade
Barriers:
Refer to one of the critical forces of globalization. Every- country restricts the movement of goods and services across its border. It imposes tariffs and quotas on the goods and services imported in its country. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 In addition, the random changes in the regulations create a chaos in global business environment.
Such practices impose limits on international business activities. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 However, gradual relief in the cross-border trade restrictions by most governments induces free trade, which, in turn, increases the growth rate of an economy.
(c) Increase in Consumer Demand:
Acts as a main driver to facilitate globalization. Over the years, with increase in the level of income and standard of living, the demand of consumers for various products has also increased. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Apart from this, nowadays, consumers are well aware about products and services available in other countries, which impel many organizations to work in association with foreign players for catering to the needs of the domestic market.
(d) High Competition:
Constitutes an important driver for bringing about globalization. An organization generally strives hard to grain competitive edge in the market. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 The frequent increase in competition in the domestic market compels organizations to go global. Thus, various organizations enter other countries (for selling goods and services) to expand their market share.
They export goods in foreign markets where the price of goods and services are relatively high. Many organizations have achieved larger global market shares through mergers and acquisitions, strategic alliances, and joint ventures. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 So, these are the major factors that have contributed a lot in globalization and the growth of global economy.
Q-3 Explain
the structure and functions of WTO. Is WTO helpful to international business or
is it a hindrance? Substantiate your answer with examples. 14+6
The World Trade Organisation (WTO) is an international organization which sets the rules for global trade. This organisation was set up in 1995 as the successor to the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffscreated after the Second World War. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 It’has 153 members. All decisions are taken unanimously but the major economic powers such as the US-EU & Japan has managed to use the WTO to frame rules of trade to advance their own interests.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international organisation which sets the rules for global trade. This organization was set up in 1995 as the successor of the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT). IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 It has 153 members. All decisions are taken unanimously but the major economic powers such as the US, EU and Japan has managed to use the WTO to frame rules of trade to advance their own interests.
The structure and functions of WTO. In this increasingly globalized scenario, companies need to be globally competitive in order to survive. Knowledge and understanding of different countries’ economies and their market is a must for establishing oneself as a global player. Now the business has gone beyond the boundaries of a nation and has turned into the international business. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Explain the structure and functions of WTO. It’s quite necessary to understand the meaning of international trade and the international organization popularly known as World Trade Organization (WTO) and its contribution towards the international business and smooth trading between countries. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 International trade is dened as a contract where two parties (These parties may operate their business in different countries trading in goods and services) enters into the transaction of buying and selling of goods and services irrespective of national boundaries. Since no nation can produce all its needs by itself alone, international trade has become not only a means by which nations source those goods and services they lack or do not have in sufcient quantities but also a subject of international politics either for achieving, promoting or maintaining peace between international trading partners or countries. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Explain the structure and functions of WTO. As a result of external developments in countries with which countries inter-depends or depends on for the essential products and sometimes wars are also fought to preserve the national security. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Its has been a common observation that one of the reasons for US going into the Gulf wars on the side of Kuwait against Iraq was US’s intention to preserve the vulnerability of its economy to oil crisis if it’s cut off from oil purchase from the Gulf by the hostile Iraq that had annexed the oil-rich portions of Kuwait.
The allied countries involved in World War 2nd realized at the end of the war that the trade tensions among the allied countries contributed on outbreak of World War 2nd. Explain the structure and functions of WTO. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 They felt the need for an organization for international cooperation which can work among countries to establish a discipline in economic relations in order to prevent future disputes. However, the resolution passed in 1946 by the United Nations Economic and Social Council [ECOSOC] to prepare a protocol to establish a world organization whose parties would jointly establish rules for trade among them, was to be embodied in the International Trade Organization [ITO]. Explain the structure and functions of WTO. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 The rst attempt by an international body to bring out fair and uniform guidelines for international trade at both private and international levels was at the Havana Conferences [1947 and 1948] consequent to which a charter for ITO [The Havana Charter] was drafted. Explain the structure and functions of WTO. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Somehow, the ITO did not receive necessary support but the GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) which was drafted parallel with the Havana Charter after negotiations in Geneva, was adopted by a provisional protocol under which the signatories agreed to apply GATT until ITO could take over supervisions of international trade. Explain the structure and functions of WTO. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 When ITO collapsed, GATT used to order the international trade relationships of the signatories. Multilateral negotiations went for a series of rounds, and the the Uruguay Round of which brought the World Trade Organization into existence, and it has become an umbrella organization with responsibility for the GATT.
Explain the structure and functions of WTO. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 The World Trade Organization is therefore the organization which was set up out of the Uruguay Round of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade negotiations in 1995 and which became the successor to and replacement of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade [GATT] and it inter alia regulates trade and tariffs worldwide and settles trade disputes amongst members. Explain the structure and functions of WTO. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 The “Dunkle Text’ contained a charter for a Multilateral Trade Organization [MTO] aimed at providing an institutional framework within which the results of the Uruguay Round could operate. Within the MTO was established a new dispute settlement mechanism and a Trade Policy Review MTO was established a new dispute settlement mechanism and a Trade Policy Review Mechanism [TPRM]. Explain the structure and functions of WTO. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 There was a framework which, provided annexes of the more important areas such as the General Agreement on Trade in Services [GATS] and The Agreement on Trade Related Intellectual Property [TRIPS] which were a part of the Text. (David Hartridge 2000).
Contrary to the position of almost all contracting parties to GATT for the retention of MTO, at the insistence of the US, it was changed to WTO. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 GATS has two parts, the short framework agreement which is substantially similar to the GATT and the schedules of national commitments which members have undertaken and which form a part of the Agreement in the same way that tariffs are part of the GATT. (David Hartridge 2000) However, in GATS, governments freely choose which services to include in their schedules and in the committed sectors, they are free to maintain limitations on the degree of market access and national treatment they are prepared to guarantee. Explain the structure and functions of WTO. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Therefore, negotiations for further liberalization will involve negotiators pressing their partners to include more sectors in their schedules and to remove some of the limitations they still maintain. Explain the structure and functions of WTO. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 The Agreement provides for every means by which services can be traded and supplied and is not limited to cross-border trade as with GATT, but also consumption abroad, which means the freedom of shippers to use foreign transport providers, the right to set up any type of business to supply the service in the export market [establishment trade], and the temporary movement abroad of individuals to provide a service, all of which show that GATS is also concerned with foreign direct investment. (David Hartridge 2000) It has been argued by Professors Gabriel Moens and Peter Gillies that the aims of GATT are equality of treatment for both imported and exported goods and the creation of a world wide open trading system and that the essential GATT principle is that of nondiscrimination from which three other principles are derived, namely the mostfavoured-nation principle, the national treatment principle and the reciprocity principle. Explain the structure and functions of WTO. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 They also argued that the GATT and WTO Agreements are essentially the multilateral acceptance of disciples upon the exercise of sovereignty whereby parties agree to limits upon what they will and will not do in respect of trade regulation, for instance in the setting of tariffs and other barriers to trade in goods and services and investment and that this does not necessarily mean a surrender of sovereignty of state since countries still retain the power to take actions under domestic regulation in violation of their international obligations. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Explain the structure and functions of WTO. This writer respectfully partially disagrees with the learned professors because as a member of the international community and signatory to any treaty, a member state is bound to fulll its treaty obligations failing which it might be sanctioned should it use its domestic regulations to circumvent what it voluntarily bound itself to perform by an international agreement. The principle of pacta sunt servanda will apply in that case. (Cavendish 1998).
Q-4 Comment
on the following statements.
(a)
Instability of export earnings of developing countries is caused by both demand
and supply factors.
Considerable research has been dedicated to the subject of export earnings instability. In fact, studies of export earnings instability dominated the trade and development literature from the 1930s to 1970s. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 However, despite the plethora of studies that exist, there's a niche within the literature on the causes and effects of export earnings instability within the Caribbean. additionally , previous studies that examine the causes and effects of export earnings instability specialise in the instability in merchandise exports. However, Caribbean countries also rely heavily on the
export of services. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 This study therefore aims to fill this gap by exploring instability within the earnings of exports of products and services within the Caribbean. the most objective is to determine the causes of export earnings instability and to review its effects on economic process , investment, the balance of payments and external debt.
Instability of export earnings of developing Export earnings instability in developing countries is the result of a number of factors. First, many developing countries have specialized on the export of primary commodities, which are peculiarly susceptible to shifts in supply and demand, as well as being more price inelastic than are, for example, manufactured goods. Instability of export earnings of developing IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 The transmission of instability of demand for developing country exports through the business cycles in the industrialized countries or uctuations in the quantities supplied for export may thus be one potential source of instability in export revenues. Instability of export earnings of developing Second, the exports of many developing countries are not only concentrated by sector (commodities) but also geographically, with obvious implications when linked to factors affecting demand in the importing countries. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Instability of export earnings of developing Third, the markets for products in which developing countries have specialized are often characterized by speculation on the one hand and oligopoly on the other. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Instability affects development through such variables as imports, savings, investment, employment, government revenues and private income.
Instability of export earnings of developing For many of the developing countries, exports of primary products are the overwhelmingly important source of foreign exchange earnings. Instability of export earnings of developing In view of the virtual absence or lack of capital goods industry, steadily rising imports must provide the investment goods and industrial raw materials necessary to increase productive capacity. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Instability of export earnings of developing The ability to import, of course, depends not only on the foreign exchange earnings from exports but also from ofcial and private capital inows from abroad. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Instability of export earnings of developing At present, however, it is generally believed that the ow of foreign capital is not likely to meet the foreign exchange requirements for the desired rate of economic growth of the developing countries.Instability of export earnings of developing For these countries, therefore, the behavior (both the level and year-to-year time path) of export earnings is crucial to their developmental efforts. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Instability of export earnings of developing The heavy dependence of many developing countries on the export of primary products gives rise to two separate types of problems widely discussed in the literature on trade and development. The rst is the instability of primary product prices and, more generally, of export earnings. The other problem is the lagging growth rate of primary product exports. This study is concerned with the former--the problem of short-run uctuations in export earnings.
t is often claimed that the export earnings of developing countries undergo greater year-to-year uctuations than do the earnings of developed countries. Instability of export earnings of developing IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 The argument runs as follows: Low price elasticities of demand and supply for most primary products, coupled with uncontrolled variability in demand and supply, lead to sharp uctuations in both prices and proceeds of these commodities. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Export instability tends to be greater for developing countries owing to the tendency for specialization in primary products, concentration on the export of a limited range of products, i.e., lack of diversication, and geographic concentration of their exports in one or few developedcountry markets. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Such excessive instability, it is argued, is detrimental to the stability and growth of the economy. Among other things, year-to-year uctuations in export earnings tend to produce combined multiplier and accelerator effects on domestic income, with inationary and deationary consequences, unless offset by appropriate domestic policies. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Instability of export earnings of developing Even if the degree of instability were the same in developed and developing countries, the latter may suffer more damage because 2 of their alleged greater dependence on foreign trade and lack of techniques and facilities necessary for effective counter-cyclical monetary and scal policies.
(b) Culture
cannot be easily isolated from factors such as economic and political
conditions and institutions.
The number of companies operating internationally is growing constantly. The world is opening up for foreign firms and new destinations in the company. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Business are increasing when going international the challenges the company must handle are new and unfamiliar culture is one of these obstacles and can affect the entire co-operation. Culture can influence the business in different ways. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21Language problems, pricing difficulties and culture collisions are not uncommon, especially in the beginning. The company must be able to handle these difficulties in a way that is satisfying also for the other part. It is important, even before entering the foreign country, to inform the personal about the manners and custom in that new culture.
Culture can be both a positive and negative influence and many companies are struggling in the new and foreign environment. The important thing to always have in mind is that the foreign culture is not as we are used to at home and to be prepared before starting the new foreign cooperation. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 By learning the host country’s language can respect and trust more easily be won, and competitive advantages can arise.
(c) ECGC
enhances credit worthiness of not only export business but also of exporters.
ECGC is an enterprise owned by government of India and is managed through Ministry of Commerce. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 ECGC was set up with an initiative to give export credit insurance to exporters. It covers all the risks in exporting and strengths export promotion. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 The Ministry of Commerce and Industry which administrates ECGC comprises of government officials, Reserve Bank of India and representatives from GST department. It provides insurance as per the requirements of exporter.
● The most important function of ECGC is the credit risk insurance to the exporters against loss or fraud on export of goods or services
● Supports banks and financial institutions so that more and more exporters can get credit and other facilities at ease
● If any exporter wants to make foreign investment, overseas investment insurance is given to Indian companies investing in joint ventures as equity or advances
● The insurance provided by ECGC acts as security on payment risk
● Not only that the exporters get credit facility but guidance is provided in every step of export
● Before exporting, exporters can check the credit ratings of the buyer and see if has enough credit worthiness
The exporter after executing the purchase order to the importer, should submit it with the Export Guarantee Corporation located in Mumbai, India. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 The purchase order should include all the necessary details from name of the importer to his bank details. The ECGC checks credit worthiness of importer and on the basis of that, informs about the maximum amount that can be covered under insurance policy. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 The policy can be taken on shipment wise or lump sum amount can be taken. Amount covered under insurance policy decides the policy premium. It varies for different policies.
(d) Ethical
dilemmas and ethical lapses are the same. 5x4
Ethical dilemmas and ethical lapses are the same.
Well, I guess the words “dilemma” and “decision” hint for the answer. When in a dilemma, choices are blurred and they could all seem right or all wrong. If you’re going to pick option too, it might seem unfair for the other stakeholders. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 But, this option could also be unfair towards the stakeholder affected mostly by your choice. So, tough choice. Ethical dilemmas need to be examined from all dimensions while the person who will make the ultimate decision stands out and examines the dilemmas from outside. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 By balancing the positives and negatives on each stakeholder, an ethical dilemma could be solved. Balance should be made not on only on facts.
But balance should be based on equality and justice. As for ethical decisions, they seem a little bit easier to deal with because the choices are defined under right or wrong. One must have self-control and self-discipline to make the right decision. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Failing to decide righteously is a result of some form of weakness like greed or selfishness. So above all this, one must know that when making an ethical decision, the conscience should be the main voice. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 An ethical lapse in business (and I am stating a very simple example) could happen in food productions (factory foods or restaurants).
Food products and services should be treated with the utmost honesty and integrity. If a supplier of food fails to meet certain standards in hygiene and quality of food products for the sake of saving money or lesser work, then that supplier succeded in lapsing ethically. Ethics are fundamental anywhere. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Moreover, ethics always win the hearts of people along with their loyalty and willingness to understand and wait. People would be more patient, appreciative, and understanding if they had built their trust in someone. But taking that for granted will break and betray their trust. Nothing is worse than betrayal too. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 At all levels. Because betrayal has all unethical actions in the process: lying, deceiving, cheating, or any other unethical actions.
Q-5 Write
notes on the following:
(a)
Political Environment
It is rightly said that a foreign business firm operates only as a guest and at the convenience of the host country government. The government reserves the right of allowing a foreign firm to operate in the country as well as laying down the manner in which a foreign firm can conduct business. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 To gain an insight into a foreign country's political environment, one needs to analyse factors such as current form of government and political party system, role of government in the economy, political encouragement to foreign firms, political stability, and political risks to business.
• Form of Government and Political Party System
• Political Ideology and Role of Government
• Political Stability
• Political Risk
• Domestication
Another type of risk relates to a temporary or permanent blocking of finds. Unlike other kinds of risks, a business firm under blockage of funds owns the funds and property rights but it cannot remit the funds or earnings back to home country. This was a common problem faced by Indians during Amin's rule in Uganda, although the government did not formally make any announcements regarding takeover of property, it became almost impossible for the firms to repatriate their earnings in any form. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 No doubt black money market operations may exist in any country, it is difficult for such operations to handle large scale of funds involved. International firms need a proactive approach to deal with political risks. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 An effective management of risks calls for recognising the existence of various kinds of political types of risks and their consequences, and developing appropriate plans and policies to deal with such risks.
(b) UNCTAD’s
Integrated Programme on Commodities
One of the main tasks of the UNCTAD was to find a solution to the commodity problems. As has already been noted, the UN had transferred the task of international commodity agreements to UNCTAD. It has an important committee to study problems of commodities of interest to developing countries and suggest various ways of ameliorating adverse effects of the prevailing commodity trade. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 The UNCTAD has done substantial work in studying the problems of commodities. In UNCTAD IV (Nairobi) the developing countries made commodity problem the centrepiece of negotiations with the developed world, and fought hard for two things: an Integrated Programme of Commodities (IPC) and the establishment of a Common Fund for financing buffer stock.
Resolution 93(IV) required the Secretary General of UNCTAD: (a) to convene preparatory meetings leading to international negotiation for International Commodity Agreements on eighteen commodities or commodity groups with an injunction that these should complete their work as soon as possible but not later than 1978; and (b) then to arrange a Commodity. The UNCTAD's Integrated Commodities Programme is expected to be comprehensive. As an UNCTAD document puts it: IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 "Fundamental to the proposed new approach is the setting of far wider objectives for international commodity arrangements, including improvement of marketing systems, diversification (horizontal and vertical), expanded access to markets, measures to counter inflation, in addition to the traditional objectives of stable and remunerative prices". IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 It is also considered a major sustained and comprehensive attack on commodity problems.
(c) WTO and
Environmental Agenda
Sustainable development and protection and preservation of the environment are fundamental goals of the WTO. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 They are enshrined in the Marrakesh Agreement, which established the WTO, and complement the WTO’s objective to reduce trade barriers and eliminate discriminatory treatment in international trade relations. While there is no specific agreement dealing with the environment, under WTO rules members can adopt trade-related measures aimed at protecting the environment provided a number of conditions to avoid the misuse of such measures for protectionist ends are fulfilled.
The WTO contributes to the protection and preservation of the environment through its objective of ensuring sustainable development and avoiding protectionism, through its rules and enforcement mechanism, and through work in different WTO bodies.
The commitment of WTO members to sustainable development and the environment can also be seen in WTO rules. In general terms the rules, with their fundamental principles of non-discrimination, transparency and predictability, help set the framework for members to design and implement measures to address environmental concerns. Moreover, WTO rules, including specialized agreements such as the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (which deals with product regulations), and the Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (which concerns food safety and animal and plant health), provide scope for environmental objectives to be followed and for necessary trade-related measures to be adopted. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 WTO rules set up the appropriate balance between the right of members to take regulatory measures, including trade restrictions, to achieve legitimate policy objectives (e.g., protection of human, animal or plant life or health, and natural resources) and the rights of other members under basic trade disciplines. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 For example, GATT Article XX on General Exceptions lays out a number of specific instances in which members may be exempted from GATT rules. The provision seeks, among other things, to ensure that environmental measures are not applied arbitrarily and are not used as disguised protectionism.
(d)
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)
The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency is an international institution that promotes investment in developing countries by offering political and economic risk insurance. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 By promoting foreign direct investment into developing countries, the agency aims to support economic growth, reduce poverty, and improve people’s lives.
The agency was created to complement both public and private investment insurance sources against non-commercial risks in developing countries. Its multilateral character and sponsorship by advanced and developing nations were seen as bolstering confidence among people going across borders to invest their money. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 In September 1985, the World Bank endorsed the idea of a multilateral political risk insurance provider and established MIGA in April 1988. The agency started out with $1 billion worth of capital among its initial 29 member states. These nations included Bahrain, Bangladesh, Barbados, Canada, Chile, Cyprus, Denmark, Ecuador, Egypt, Germany, Grenada, Indonesia, Jamaica, Japan, Jordan, Korea, Kuwait, Lesotho, Malawi, Netherlands, Nigeria, Pakistan, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and the United States. In 1991, the number of member states of MIGA topped 100. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Eight years later, guarantees issued by the agency reached a total of $1.3 billion, topping the $1 billion dollar mark for the first time ever. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 The agency also provided guarantees worth $1.2 billion in 2009 to support the economies in Europe and Central Asia following the global financial crisis.
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Now students have to submit their assignments online to Madhyam before the scheduled date. You can submit your annual assignment through the online link. IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Through the online submission links issued by the university, you can submit your assignment from home.
How can I submit
Ignou assignment online 2021?
The email must carry the following details
of the sender:
1. Name
of the learner:
2. Enrollment
number:
3. Regional
Centre Code:
4. Study
Centre Code:
5. Programme
Code:
6. Course
Code(s) of attached assignments:
7. Mobile
number:
8. Email ID:
How can I get
first page of Ignou assignment?
The first page must include the
following information.
1. Name.
2. Roll
number.
3. Address.
4. Assignment number.
5. Name
of the course.
6. Study
Centre.
7. Programme.
Date of submission.
You
also directly download IGNOU Assignment Question Paper from – Follow
the advice and Guidelines by IGNOU University , For checking Guidelines you can
see your question paper clearly, after seeing the question paper candidate
still have any query related with IGNOU Solved Assignment , they can ask to
their teacher if Students want any information they also can contact us. We
will provide all IGNOU Help – 8130208920 (From 10:00AM to 7:00PM)
Related Link:
IBO 03 Solved Assignment 2020-21
IBO 04 Solved Assignment 2020-21
IGNOU Assignment Status 2020-21
IBO 01 INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT Solved Assignment 2020-21:
Those students who had successfully submitted their Assignments to their
allocated study centres can now check their Assignment Status. Alongside
assignment status, they will also checkout their assignment marks & result.
All this is often available in a web mode. After submitting the assignment,
you'll check you IGNOU Assignment Status only after 3-4 weeks. it'd take 40
days to declare.
Those
students who had successfully submitted their Assignments to their allocated
study centres can now check their Assignment Status. Along with assignment
status, they can also checkout their assignment marks & result. All this is
available in an online mode. After submitting the assignment, you can check you
IGNOU Assignment Status only after 3-4 weeks. It might take 40 days to declare.
Here the
students can check their IGNOU Assignment Status, marks, result or both
the sessions i.e; June & December.
Once the TEE
assignments have been submitted to the Centres, it is send to the evaluation
department. After which the evaluation of IGNOU Assignment Solutions takes
place.
Here the
scholars can check their IGNOU Assignment Status 2020, marks, result or both
the sessions i.e; June & December.
IBO 01 Solved Assignment 2020-21 Once the TEE assignments are
submitted to the Centres, it's send to the evaluation department. After which
the evaluation of IGNOU Assignment Solutions takes place.
For PDF and Handwritten
WhatsApp 8130208920