MPCE 023 INTERVENTIONS IN COUNSELLING Solved Assignment 2021-22

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MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22

SECTION – A

1. Explain Freud’s theory of personality and its implications for counseling.

Sigmund Freud is considered to be the father of psychiatry. Among his many accomplishments is, arguably, the most far-reaching personality schema in psychology: MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 the Freudian theory of personality. It has been the focus of many additions, modifications, and various interpretations given to its core points. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Despite many reincarnations, Freud’s theory is criticized by many (e.g. for its perceived sexism) and it remains the focus of hot discussions on its relevance today.

Sigmund Freud is considered to be the father of psychiatry. Among his many accomplishments is, arguably, the most far-reaching personality schema in psychology: the Freudian theory of personality. It has been the focus of many additions, modifications, and various interpretations given to its core points. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Despite many reincarnations, Freud’s theory is criticized by many (e.g. for its perceived sexism) and it remains the focus of hot discussions on its relevance today.

Human Personality: MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The adult personality emerges as a composite of early childhood experiences, based on how these experiences are consciously and unconsciously processed within human developmental stages, and how these experiences shape the personality.

Not every person completes the necessary tasks of every developmental stage. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 When they don’t, the results can be a mental condition requiring psychoanalysis to achieve proper functioning.

Not every person completes the necessary tasks of every developmental stage. When they don’t, the results can be a mental condition requiring psychoanalysis to achieve proper functioning.

Each stage is processed through Freud’s concept of the human mind as a three tier system consisting of the superego, the ego, and the id. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The super ego functions at a conscious level. It serves as a type of screening center for what is going on. It is at this level that society and parental guidance is weighed against personal pleasure and gain as directed by ones id. Obviously, this puts in motion situations ripe for conflict.

Much like a judge in a trial, once experiences are processed through the superego and the id they fall into the ego to mediate a satisfactory outcome. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Originally, Freud used the word ego to mean a sense of self, but later revised it to mean a set of psychic functions such as judgment, tolerance, reality testing, control, planning, defense, synthesis of information, intellectual functioning, and memory.

The egocentric center of the human universe, MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Freud believed that within this one level, the id is constantly fighting to have our way in everything we undertake.

So where does this leave us? In the words of Jim Morrison in a song he wrote for the Doors “I want the world and I want it NOW!” seems to be on the tip of many persons lips. It could have been entitled Ode to the Id.

There are many mental illnesses that place the id in the forefront decision making. In particular, there are those whose lives are lived on a totally narcissistic level. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Then there are those with anti-social personalities, psychotic like illnesses, and more. In the world of Freud, it is the neurotic person that is most affected by the principles of his theory.

As a result Freud laid out his plan for treatment: psychoanalysis. The treatment has been in use for many years with many adaptations given to it. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 On the plus side, psychoanalysis do present a client with the structure and time to resolve neurotic issues. On the negative side there is always expressed concern over the cost. Being that it does take time for psychoanalysis to be effective there is an associated cost that can be prohibitive.

Sigmund Freud presented the first comprehensive theory of personality. He was also the first to recognize that much of our mental life takes place outside of our conscious awareness. He proposed three components to our personality: the id, ego, and superego. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The job of the ego is to balance the sexual and aggressive drives of the id with the moral ideal of the superego. Freud also said that personality develops through a series of psychosexual stages. In each stage, pleasure focuses on a specific erogenous zone. Failure to resolve a stage can lead one to become fixated in that stage, leading to unhealthy personality traits. Successful resolution of the stages leads to a healthy adult.

The neo-Freudians were psychologists whose work followed from Freud’s. They generally agreed with Freud that childhood experiences matter, but they decreased the emphasis on sex and focused more on the social environment and effects of culture on personality. Some of the notable neo-Freudians are Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Erik Erikson, and Karen Horney. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The neo-Freudian approaches have been criticized, because they tend to be philosophical rather than based on sound scientific research. You’ll learn about Freud and the neo-Freudian perspectives on personality in this section.

Personality refers to the long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Our personality is what makes us unique individuals. Each person has an idiosyncratic pattern of enduring, long-term characteristics and a manner in which he or she interacts with other individuals and the world around them. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Our personalities are thought to be long term, stable, and not easily changed. The word personality comes from the Latin word persona. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 In the ancient world, a persona was a mask worn by an actor. While we tend to think of a mask as being worn to conceal one’s identity, the theatrical mask was originally used to either represent or project a specific personality trait of a character (Figure 1).

Sigmund Freud’s psychodynamic perspective of personality was the first comprehensive theory of personality, explaining a wide variety of both normal and abnormal behaviors. According to Freud, unconscious drives influenced by sex and aggression, along with childhood sexuality, are the forces that influence our personality. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Freud attracted many followers who modified his ideas to create new theories about personality. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 These theorists, referred to as neo-Freudians, generally agreed with Freud that childhood experiences matter, but they reduced the emphasis on sex and focused more on the social environment and effects of culture on personality. The perspective of personality proposed by Freud and his followers was the dominant theory of personality for the first half of the 20th century.

2. Describe the goals of Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT). Explain the four basic problem areas it addresses.

This article briefly describes the fundamental principles and some of the clinical applications of interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT), a time-limited, empirically validated treatment for mood disorders. IPT has been tested with general success in a series of clinical trials for mood and, increasingly, non-mood disorders; as both an acute and maintenance treatment; and in differing treatment formats. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 As a result of this research success, IPT is spreading from research trials to clinical practice in various countries around the world.

The recognition of depressive illness as prevalent, morbid, potentially deadly, and economically costly has spurred interest in its treatment. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Pharmacotherapy has shown clear benefits for the acute and chronic treatment of the major mood syndromes, namely major depressive disorder (MDD), dysthymic disorder, and bipolar disorder. Antidepressant medications work for most patients, and work for as long as those patients continue to take the medications, but all treatments have limits. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 A significant proportion of medication responders have residual symptoms that predispose to recurrence or relapse of their mood disorders. Other patients do not respond to medications, refuse to take them, or in many areas of the world simply cannot afford them. For all of these patients, psychotherapies may have utility.

The two principal empirically-based psychotherapeutic interventions for mood disorders are cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT). Both are diagnosis-targeted, time-limited, present-focused treatments that encourage the patient to regain control of mood and functioning. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 IPT is based on the so-called common factors of psychotherapy: a treatment alliance in which the therapist empathically engages the patient, helps the patient to feel understood, arouses affect, presents a clear rationale and treatment ritual, and yields success experiences. On this foundation IPT builds two major principles:

Depression is a medical illness, rather than the patient's fault or personal defect; moreover, it is a treatable condition. This definition has the effect of defining the problem and excusing the patient from symptomatic self-blame.

Mood and life situation are related. Building on interpersonal theory and psychosocial research on depression, IPT makes a practical link between the patient's mood and disturbing life events that either trigger or follow from the onset of the mood disorder.

Research has demonstrated that depression often follows a disturbing change in one's interpersonal environment such as the death of a loved one (complicated bereavement), a struggle with a significant other (role dispute), or some other life upheaval: a geographic or career move, the beginning or ending of a marriage or other relationship, or becoming physically ill (a role transition). MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Once patients become depressed, symptoms of the illness compromise their interpersonal functioning, and bad events follow. Although these observations seem commonsensical, many depressed patients turn inward, blaming themselves and losing sight of their environment. Whether life events follow or precede mood changes, the patient's task in therapy is to resolve the disturbing life event(s), building social skills and helping to organize his or her life. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 If the patient can solve the life problem, depressive symptoms should resolve as well. This coupled effect has been borne out in clinical trials demonstrating the efficacy of IPT for major depression.

IPT is a time-limited (acutely, 12-16 weeks) treatment with three phases: a beginning (1-3 sessions), middle, and end (3 sessions). The initial phase requires the therapist to identify the target diagnosis (MDD) and the interpersonal context in which it presents. In diagnosing major depression, the therapist follows DSM-IV or ICD-10 criteria and employs severity measures such as the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (Ham-D) or Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) to reify the problem as an illness rather than the patient's idiosyncratic defect. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The therapist also elicits an "interpersonal inventory", a review of the patient's patterns in relationships, capacity for intimacy, and particularly an evaluation of current relationships. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 A focus for treatment emerges from the last: someone important may have died (complicated bereavement), there may be a struggle with a significant other (role dispute), or the patient may have gone through some other important life change (role transition); in the relatively infrequent absence of any of these, the default focus is on interpersonal deficits, a confusing term that really denotes the absence of a current life event.

The therapist links the target diagnosis to the interpersonal focus: "As we've discussed, you are suffering from major depression, which is a treatable illness and not your fault. From what you've told me, your depression seems related to what's happening in your life right now. You stopped sleeping and eating and began to feel depressed after your mother died, and you've had difficulty in coming to terms with that terrible loss. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 We call that complicated bereavement, which is a common, treatable form of depression. I suggest that we spend the next 12 weeks working on helping you deal with that bereavement. If you can solve this interpersonal problem, not only will your life be better, but your mood will improve as well". This formulation defines the remainder of the therapy. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The connection between mood and life events is practical, not etiological: there is no pretense that this is what "causes" depression. With the patient's agreement on this focus, treatment moves into the middle phase.

Other facets of the opening phase include giving the patient the "sick role", a temporary status recognizing that depressive illness keeps the patient from functioning at full capacity, and setting treatment parameters such as the time limit and the expectation that therapy will focus on recent interpersonal interactions.

In the middle phase of treatment, the therapist uses specific strategies to deal with whichever of the four potential problem areas is the focus. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This might involve appropriate mourning in complicated bereavement, resolving an interpersonal struggle in a role dispute, helping a patient to mourn the loss of an old role and assume a new one in a role transition, or decreasing social isolation for interpersonal deficits. Whatever the focus, the therapy is likely to address the patient's ability to assert his or her needs and wishes in interpersonal encounters, to validate the patient's anger as a normal interpersonal signal and to encourage its efficient expression, and to encourage taking appropriate social risks. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 In the last few sessions, the therapist reminds the patient that termination is nearing, helps the patient to feel more capable and independent by reviewing his or her often considerable accomplishments during the treatment, and notes that ending therapy is itself a role transition, with inevitable good and painful aspects. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Since IPT has also demonstrated efficacy as a maintenance treatment for recurrent MDD, and since patients who have had multiple episodes are very likely to have more, therapist and patient may decide to end acute treatment as scheduled and then to recontract for ongoing treatment, perhaps of less intensive dosage: e.g., monthly rather than weekly sessions.

The IPT therapist's stance is relaxed and supportive. The goal is to be the patient's ally. The acute time limit pressures the patient to take action. No formal homework is assigned, but the goal of solving the focal interpersonal problem area provides an overall task. Treatment centers on the patient's outside environment, not on the therapy itself. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The scheduling of sessions once weekly accentuates that the emphasis is on the patient's real life, not the office. In sessions therapist and patient review the past week's events. When the patient succeeds in an interpersonal situation, the therapist acts as a cheerleader, reinforcing healthy interpersonal skills. When the outcome is adverse, the therapist offers sympathy, helps the patient to analyze what went wrong in the situation, brainstorms new interpersonal options, and role plays them with the patient in rehearsal for real life. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The patient then tests them out. Given this emphasis on interpersonal interaction, it is not surprising that depressed patients learn new interpersonal skills from IPT that they have not seen with pharmacotherapy.

Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) is a time-limited, focused, evidence-based approach to treat mood disorders. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The main goal of IPT is to improve the quality of a client’s interpersonal relationships and social functioning to help reduce their distress. IPT provides strategies to resolve problems within four key areas.

First, it addresses interpersonal deficits, including social isolation or involvement in unfulfilling relationships. Second, it can help patients manage unresolved grief—if the onset of distress is linked to the death of a loved one, either recent or past. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Third, IPT can help with difficult life transitions like retirement, divorce, or moving to another city. Fourth, IPT is recommended for dealing with interpersonal disputes that emerge from conflicting expectations between partners, family members, close friends, or coworkers.

IPT was originally developed to treat major depressive disorder. It’s also used effectively to treat eating disorders, perinatal depression, drug and alcohol addiction, dysthymia, and other mood disorders—including bipolar disorder. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 IPT differs from other traditional psychodynamic approaches in that it examines current rather than past relationships, and recognizes—but does not focus on—internal conflicts.

The practice differs from cognitive and behavioral therapy approaches because it addresses maladaptive thoughts and behaviors only as they apply to interpersonal relationships. IPT aims to change relationship patterns rather than the associated depressive symptoms, as well as target relationship difficulties that exacerbate these symptoms. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 IPT is less directive than cognitive-behavioral approaches—focusing on the patient’s specified target areas without dwelling on his or her personality traits.

3. Critically discuss the solution focused counseling.

Solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT) places focus on a person's present and future circumstances and goals rather than past experiences. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 In this goal-oriented therapy, the symptoms or issues bringing a person to therapy are typically not targeted.

Instead, a qualified therapist encourages those in treatment to develop a vision of the future and offers support as they determine the skills, resources, and abilities needed to achieve that vision successfully.

The need for an alternative approach to therapy was recognized as mental health practitioners began to observe the amount of energy, time, money, and other resources spent discussing and analyzing the challenges revealed during the therapy process, while the issues originally bringing an individual to therapy continued to have a negative impact. Steve de Shazer and Insoo Kim Berg of the Brief Family Therapy Center in Milwaukee, along with their team, developed solution-focused brief therapy in the early 1980s in response to this observation. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 SFBT aims to develop realistic solutions as quickly as possible, rather than keeping people in therapy for long periods of time, in order to promote lasting relief for those in therapy.

SFBT developed into the fast, effective treatment modality it is today over approximately three decades, and it continues to evolve and change in order to meet the needs of those in therapy. Currently, therapists in the United States, Canada, South America, Asia, and Europe are trained in the approach. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The principles of solution-focused therapy have been applied to a wide variety of environments including schools, places of employment, and other settings where people are eager to reach personal goals and improve interpersonal relationships.

SFBT, which aims to help people experiencing difficulty find tools they can use immediately to manage symptoms and cope with challenges, is grounded in the belief that although individuals may already have the skills to create change in their lives, they often need help identifying and developing those skills. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Similarly, SFBT recognizes that people already know, on some level, what change is needed in their lives, and SFBT practitioners work to help the people in their care clarify their goals. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Practitioners of SFBT encourage individuals to imagine the future they desire and then work to collaboratively develop a series of steps that will help them achieve those goals. In particular, therapists can help those in treatment identify a time in life when a current issue was either less detrimental or more manageable and evaluate what factors were different or what solutions may have been present in the past.

This form of therapy involves first developing a vision of one’s future and then determining how internal abilities can be enhanced in order to attain the desired outcome. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Therapists who practice SFBT attempt to guide people in therapy through the process of recognizing what is working for them, help them explore how best to continue practicing those strategies, and encourage them to acknowledge and celebrate success. In addition, practitioners of SFBT support people in therapy as they experiment with new problem-solving approaches.

In SFBT, counselors ask specific types of question to guide the session. Coping questions, for example, can help demonstrate to those in therapy their resiliency and the number of ways in which they are capable of coping with challenges in their lives. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 An example might be, “How do you manage, in the face of such difficulty, to fulfill your daily obligations?” This can help people recognize their skills in coping with adversity.

Miracle questions help people envision a future in which the problem is absent. In essence, this line of questioning allows people to explain how their lives would look different if the problem did not exist, which can help them identify small, practical steps they can take immediately toward change. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 For example, the person in therapy might describe a feeling of ease with family members and believe this ease can only be felt if the present problem were absent. Imagining a scenario where the present problem does not exist can remind people behavioral changes are possible and allow them to see what can be done to create change in their lives.

Scaling questions use a scale from 0–10 to assess present circumstances, progress, or how one is viewed by others. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 These kinds of questions are often used when there is insufficient time to explore the miracle question and they can help a therapist to gain insight into the hopefulness, motivation, and confidence of people in therapy. In addition, people who have difficulty verbalizing their experiences may find this approach less challenging.

While there are a number of people in therapy and practitioners who report the effectiveness of solution-focused brief therapy, some concerns have, over the years, presented themselves. One major criticism of the modality is that its quick, goal-oriented nature may not allow therapists the necessary time to empathize with what people in treatment are experiencing. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 As such, those in therapy may feel misunderstood if the therapist is not meeting them on their emotional level.

A second concern is the way SFBT seems to simply discard or ignore information deemed important by other treatment modalities. For example, in this type of therapy a relationship between the adverse issues people face and the changes necessary to foster improvement is not assumed, and any underlying reasons for maladaptive thoughts and/or behaviors are not explored in a typical SFBT session. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Individuals wishing to explore these reasons may find it more helpful to seek a type of therapy that addresses these concerns, though they may do so while also receiving SFBT.

Though there are positive reports about the efficacy of solution-focused therapy and preliminary research findings suggest people who utilize this type of treatment often see better results than those who do not seek therapy, more research needs to be done in order to provide empirical support for the approach. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Studies providing substantial objective validity of the effectiveness of SFBT will lend more credence to its establishment as a popular form of treatment.

SECTION – B

4. Explain gestalt approach to counseling.

Gestalt therapy is a humanistic, holistic, person-centered form of psychotherapy that is focused on a person's present life and challenges rather than delving into past experiences. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This approach stresses the importance of understanding the context of a person’s life and taking responsibility rather than placing blame.

Gestalt, by definition, refers to the form or shape of something and suggests that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 There is an emphasis on perception in this particular theory of counseling. Gestalt therapy gives attention to how we place meaning and make sense of our world and our experiences.

Gestalt therapy was developed by Fritz Perls, with the help of his wife at the time, Laura Perls, and introduced in the 1940s as an alternative to more traditional psychoanalysis. Both Fritz and Laura were trained in psychoanalysis and gestalt psychology.

Along with others, such as Paul Goodman, they worked together to develop a style of therapy that was humanistic in nature. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 In other words, the approach focused on the person and the uniqueness of their experience.

In this client-centered approach to therapy, the gestalt therapist understands that no one can be fully objective and that we are influenced by our environment and our experiences. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 A therapist trained in gestalt therapy holds space for their clients to share their truth, not imposing their judgment and accepting the truth of their clients' experiences.

Since therapists are human as well, it is important for gestalt therapists to consider the influence of their own experiences on what is happening in the session.

Gestalt therapy is a client-centered approach to psychotherapy that helps clients focus on the present and understand what is really happening in their lives right now, rather than what they may perceive to be happening based on past experience. Instead of simply talking about past situations, clients are encouraged to experience them, perhaps through re-enactment. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Through the gestalt process, clients learn to become more aware of how their own negative thought patterns and behaviors are blocking true self-awareness and making them unhappy.

Gestalt therapy can help clients with issues such as anxiety, depression, self-esteem, relationship difficulties, and even physical ones like migraine headaches, ulcerative colitis, and back spasms. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Good candidates for gestalt therapy are those who are interested in working on their self-awareness but may or may not understand the role they play in their own unhappiness and discomfort. Gestalt techniques are often used in combination with body work, dance, art, drama, and other therapies.

A gestalt therapist focuses on what is happening in the moment and finding solutions in the present time. For examples, rather than discuss why something happened in the past, the therapist will encourage you to re-enact the moment and discuss how it feels right now. In other words, you will be asked to experience your feelings, rather than simply talk about them. The therapist will ask you questions like, MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 “What’s going on in this moment?” or “How does this make you feel now?” Your therapist may experiment with dream work, guided fantasy, role-playing, confrontation, and other techniques that can help bring past and current struggles to life in the therapeutic setting. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Your goal, as you become more aware of yourself and your senses, is to take more responsibility for yourself, accept the consequences of your behavior, and learn to satisfy your own needs while still respecting the needs of others.

5. Describe the techniques for helping children with learning disability.

Learning disabilities are surprisingly common. They are a result of differences in brain structure but do not relate to intelligence, behavior, or focus. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 In short, they are differences that make it difficult to succeed in a typical American school, though they may have relatively little impact on tasks of daily living.

Simply stated, a learning disability is a processing difficulty and any of the five senses may be impaired.

Learning disabilities are NOT mental retardation, nor are they the result of a poor academic background, emotional disturbance, lack of motivation, or visual or auditory acuity problems (Association of Higher Education and Disability). A person with a learning disability may have average or above average intelligence. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 In fact, Albert Einstein, Winston Churchill, Nelson Rockefeller, Thomas Edison, Woodrow Wilson, George Patton, Walt Disney, and Hans Christian Anderson are all thought to have had learning disabilities.

All children need love, encouragement, and support, and for kids with learning disabilities, such positive reinforcement can help ensure that they emerge with a strong sense of self-worth, confidence, and the determination to keep going even when things are tough.

In searching for ways to help children with learning disabilities, remember that you are looking for ways to help them help themselves. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Your job as a parent is not to “cure” the learning disability, but to give your child the social and emotional tools they need to work through challenges. In the long run, facing and overcoming a challenge such as a learning disability can help your child grow stronger and more resilient.

Always remember that the way you behave and respond to challenges has a big impact on your child. A good attitude won’t solve the problems associated with a learning disability, but it can give your child hope and confidence that things can improve and that they will eventually succeed.

Keep things in perspective. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 A learning disability isn’t insurmountable. Remind yourself that everyone faces obstacles. It’s up to you as a parent to teach your child how to deal with those obstacles without becoming discouraged or overwhelmed. Don’t let the tests, school bureaucracy, and endless paperwork distract you from what’s really important—giving your child plenty of emotional and moral support.

Become your own expert. Do your own research and keep abreast of new developments in learning disability programs, therapies, and educational techniques. You may be tempted to look to others—teachers, therapists, doctors—for solutions, especially at first. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 But you’re the foremost expert on your child, so take charge when it comes to finding the tools they need in order to learn.

Be an advocate for your child. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 You may have to speak up time and time again to get special help for your child. Embrace your role as a proactive parent and work on your communication skills. It may be frustrating at times, but by remaining calm and reasonable, yet firm, you can make a huge difference for your child.

Remember that your influence outweighs all others. Your child will follow your lead. If you approach learning challenges with optimism, hard work, and a sense of humor, your child is likely to embrace your perspective—or at least see the challenges as a speed bump, rather than a roadblock. Focus your energy on learning what works for your child and implementing it the best you can.

Everyone—learning disability or not—has their own unique learning style. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Some people learn best by seeing or reading, others by listening, and still others by doing. You can help a child with a learning disability by identifying their primary learning style.

6. Describe the behavioural disorders of childhood and adolescence.

Mental health problems in children and adolescents include several types of emotional and behavioural disorders, including disruptive, depression, anxiety and pervasive developmental (autism) disorders, characterized as either internalizing or externalizing problems. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Disruptive behavioural problems such as temper tantrums, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional, defiant or conduct disorders are the commonest behavioural problems in preschool and school age children. The routine Paediatric clinic or Family Medicine/General Practitioner surgery presents with several desirable characteristics that make them ideal for providing effective mental health services to children and adolescents. DSM-5 and ICD-10 are the universally accepted standard criteria for the classification of mental and behaviour disorders in childhood and adults. The age and gender prevalence estimation of various childhood behavioural disorders are variable and difficult to compare worldwide. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 A review of relevant published literature was conducted, including published meta-analyses and national guidelines. We searched for articles indexed by Ovid, PubMed, PubMed Medical Central, CINAHL, EMBASE, Database of Abstracts and Reviews, and the Cochrane Database of Systematic reviews and other online sources. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The searches were conducted using a combination of search expressions including “childhood”, “behaviour”, “disorders” or “problems”. Childhood behaviour and emotional problems with their related disorders have significant negative impacts on the individual, the family and the society. They are commonly associated with poor academic, occupational, and psychosocial functioning. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 It is important for all healthcare professionals, especially the Paediatricians to be aware of the range of presentation, prevention and management of the common mental health problems in children and adolescents.

All young children can be naughty, defiant and impulsive from time to time, which is perfectly normal. However, some children have extremely difficult and challenging behaviours that are outside the norm for their age.

The most common disruptive behaviour disorders include oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), conduct disorder (CD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 These three behavioural disorders share some common symptoms, so diagnosis can be difficult and time consuming. A child or adolescent may have two disorders at the same time. Other exacerbating factors can include emotional problems, mood disorders, family difficulties and substance abuse.

Children with conduct disorder (CD) are often judged as ‘bad kids’ because of their delinquent behaviour and refusal to accept rules. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Around five per cent of 10 year olds are thought to have CD, with boys outnumbering girls by four to one. Around one-third of children with CD also have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Disruptive behavioural disorders are complicated and may include many different factors working in combination. For example, a child who exhibits the delinquent behaviours of CD may also have ADHD, anxiety, depression, and a difficult home life

7. Explain the principles of behaviour modification.

They merely disapproved of our actions and were hoping to prevent us from repeating them in the future. This is an excellent example of behaviour modification. Behaviour modification refers to the technique or treatment procedure used to change behaviour by altering a person's current environment to help the person function better in everyday life (Pear & Martin, 2003). Behaviour modification focuses on using a principle of learning and cognition to understand and change people's behaviour. This might sound very technical, but it is used frequently by all of us. Parent use this to teach their children right from wrong. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Therapists use it to promote healthy behaviour in their patients. Animal trainers use it to develop obedience between a pet and its owner. We even use it in our relationships with friends and significant others in dealing with everyday life experiences. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The broad theory of Behavior Modification also draws inspiration from the earlier works of Edward Thorndike, when he postulated his law of effect. The Law of Effect states that specific actions in a given situation arise due to the known repercussions. For instance, the likelihood of you placing your hand on a hot surface of your own accord will decrease because the material is hot, so you would burn your hand. Understanding Behavior Modification would help one walk the path of life smoothly.

Behavior Modification is an integrated strategy intended to modify a distinct undesirable repugnant behavior.

Using an integrated method of right or wrong outcomes, a person learns the right set of reactions for any transmitted stimulus. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This strategy has various branches that strive to adjust behaviour using different operations, which have been developed through years of refinement. Behavior Modification has proven to effectively address issues such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), phobias, generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), and even autism.

It is essential to know that this is not to be confused with the Pavlovian dog experiment that most people know. That is called classical conditioning. The difference is in the nature of the response. Contrary to Pavlovian conditioning, that ordinarily involves evoked or reflexive reactions, Skinner’s theory involves voluntary reactions. MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 These experiment are pathways of knowing and mastering Behavior Modification.

The driving belief of Behavior Modification states that every behavior can be watched and regulated and can be objectives to effect change. As a consequence of those outcomes ( whether positive or even negative), an individual can acquire, form or even do away with specific behaviors.

8. Explain the cognitive distortions with examples.

Our circumstances don’t define us. Regardless of what happens in life, we always have the power to choose our attitude. IGNOU MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 So what’s the difference between someone who remains hopeful despite experiencing great suffering and the person who stubs his or her toe and remains angry the rest of the day? The answer lies in the person’s thinking patterns.

Psychologists use the term “cognitive distortions” to describe irrational, inflated thoughts or beliefs that distort a person’s perception of reality, usually in a negative way. IGNOU MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Cognitive distortions are common but can be hard to recognize if you don’t know what to look for. Many occur as automatic thoughts. They are so habitual that the thinker often doesn’t realize he or she has the power to change them. Many grow to believe that’s just the way things are.

Cognitive distortions can take a serious toll on one’s mental health, leading to increased stress, depression, and anxiety. IGNOU MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 If left unchecked, these automatic thought patterns can become entrenched and may negatively influence the rational, logical way you make decisions.

For those looking to improve their mental health by recognizing pesky cognitive distortions, we’ve compiled a list of 20 common ones that may already be distorting your perception of reality:

1. BLACK-AND-WHITE THINKING

A person with this dichotomous thinking pattern typically sees things in terms of either/or. Something is either good or bad, right or wrong, all or nothing. Black-and-white thinking fails to acknowledge that there are almost always several shades of gray that exist between black and white. By seeing only two possible sides or outcomes to something, a person ignores the middle—and possibly more reasonable—ground.

2. PERSONALIZATION

When engaging in this type of thinking, an individual tends to take things personally. He or she may attribute things that other people do as the result of his or her own actions or behaviors. This type of thinking also causes a person to blame himself or herself for external circumstances outside the person’s control.

3. ‘SHOULD’ STATEMENTS

Thoughts that include “should,” “ought,” or “must” are almost always related to a cognitive distortion. For example: “I should have arrived to the meeting earlier,” or, “I must lose weight to be more attractive.” This type of thinking may induce feelings of guilt or shame. “Should” statements also are common when referring to others in our lives. These thoughts may go something like, “He should have called me earlier,” or, “She ought to thank me for all the help I’ve given her.” Such thoughts can lead a person to feel frustration, anger, and bitterness when others fail to meet unrealistic expectations. No matter how hard we wish to sometimes, we cannot control the behavior of another, so thinking about what others should do serves no healthy purpose.

4. CATASTROPHIZING

This occurs when a person sees any unpleasant occurrence as the worst possible outcome. A person who is catastrophizing might fail an exam and immediately think he or she has likely failed the entire course. A person may not have even taken the exam yet and already believe he or she will fail—assuming the worst, or preemptively catastrophizing.

5. MAGNIFYING

With this type of cognitive distortion, things are exaggerated or blown out of proportion, though not quite to the extent of catastrophizing. It is the real-life version of the old saying, “Making a mountain out of a molehill.”

SECTION – C

9. Separation anxiety

Separation anxiety is a normal stage of development for infants and toddlers. Young children often experience a period of separation anxiety, but most children outgrow separation anxiety by about 3 years of age.

In some children, separation anxiety is a sign of a more serious condition known as separation anxiety disorder, starting as early as preschool age.

If your child's separation anxiety seems intense or prolonged — especially if it interferes with school or other daily activities or includes panic attacks or other problems — he or she may have separation anxiety disorder. IGNOU MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Most frequently this relates to the child's anxiety about his or her parents, but it could relate to another close caregiver.

10. Token economy

A token economy is a system of contingency management based on the systematic reinforcement of target behavior. IGNOU MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The reinforcers are symbols or tokens that can be exchanged for other reinforcers. A token economy is based on the principles of operant conditioning and behavioral economics and can be situated within applied behavior analysis. In applied settings token economies are used with children and adults; however, they have been successfully modeled with pigeons in lab settings.

11. ABCD sequence

12. Exception seeking

In this, the clients are encouraged to seek out instances of exception when the problem was not present, for instance ; when, where and how these instances occur, are considered and then solutions are developed based on these.

The counselor helps clients identify positively worded goals that reflect what they do want to happen which will be a measurable goal.

13. Structural approach to family counselling

Structural family therapy (SFT) is a method of psychotherapy developed by Salvador Minuchin which addresses problems in functioning within a family. Structural family therapists strive to enter, or "join", the family system in therapy in order to understand the invisible rules which govern its functioning, map the relationships between family members or between subsets of the family, and ultimately disrupt dysfunctional relationships within the family, causing it to stabilize into healthier patterns. Minuchin contends that pathology rests not in the individual, but within the family system.

14. Circular questioning

A method of externalization occurs within the Systems Theory of Circular Questioning. Circular questioning is the centerpiece of a group of family counselors known as the Milan Group. Their experiences with families of people with schizophrenia led them to question and discard structural approaches and to incorporate systems theory, which draws heavily on the work of Gregory Bateson, into their work. For Bateson, mental processes are a form of cybernetic feedback, and ‘mind’ consists of components connected in circular patterns. For people such as Karl Tomm, IGNOU MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 circularity means “the capacity of the therapist to conduct his [sic] investigation on the basis of feedback from the family in response to the information he solicits about relationships”. Tomm also regards circularity as “a bridge connecting systemic hypothesizing and neutrality by means of the therapists’ activity”.

15. Unconditional positive regard

Unconditional positive regard, a concept developed by the humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers, is the basic acceptance and support of a person regardless of what the person says or does, especially in the context of client-centred therapy. Its founder, Carl Rogers, writes:

According to Rogers, unconditional positive regard involves showing complete support and acceptance of a person no matter what that person says or does. The therapist accepts and supports the client, no matter what they say or do, placing no conditions on this acceptance.

16. Sculpting

Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts. Durable sculptural processes originally used carving (the removal of material) and modelling (the addition of material, as clay), in stone, metal, ceramics, wood and other materials but, since Modernism, there has been an almost complete freedom of materials and process. A wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or moulded or cast.

17. Five major categories of online counselling

Online counseling is the provision of professional mental health counseling services through the Internet. IGNOU MPCE 023 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Computer aided technologies are used by the trained professional counsellors and individuals seeking counselling services to communicate rather than conventional face-to-face interactions. Online counselling is also referred as an e-therapy, cyber therapy, or web counselling. Services are typically offered via email, real-time chat, and video conferencing. Some clients use online counseling in conjunction with traditional psychotherapy, or nutritional counseling. Increasing number of clients are using online counseling as a replacement for office visits.

18. Reality therapy

Reality therapy is a form of counseling that views behaviors as choices. It states that psychological symptoms occur not because of a mental health condition, but due to people choosing behaviors to fulfill their needs.

Reality therapy focuses on current issues affecting a person seeking treatment rather than the issues the person has experienced in the past, and it encourages that person to use therapy to address any behavior that may prevent them from finding a solution to those issues.

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