BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22

BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22

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BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22

COURSE CODE : BPCC-131

COURSE TITLE : FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY

ASSIGNMENT CODE : BPCC-131/TMA/2021-22

Maximum Marks: 100

Note: Attempt all the questions.

Section-A

Answer the following questions in about 500 words each. Each question carries 20 marks. 

1. Explain the basic steps and methods of research in psychology. 

Psychologists and other social scientists regularly propose explanations for human behavior. On a more informal level, people make judgments about the intentions, motivations, and actions of others on a daily basis. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 While the everyday judgments we make about human behavior are subjective and anecdotal, researchers use the scientific method to study psychology in an objective and systematic way. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The results of these studies are often reported in popular media, which leads many to wonder just how or why researchers arrived at the conclusions they did.

The Steps of the Scientific Method

While research studies can vary, these are the basic steps that psychologists and scientists use when investigating human behavior.

Step 1. Make an Observation

Before a researcher can begin, they must choose a topic to study. Once an area of interest has been chosen, the researchers must then conduct a thorough review of the existing literature on the subject. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This review will provide valuable information about what has already been learned about the topic and what questions remain to be answered.

A literature review might involve looking at a considerable amount of written material from both books and academic journals dating back decades. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The relevant information collected by the researcher will be presented in the introduction section of the final published study results. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This background material will also help the researcher with the first major step in conducting a psychology study — formulating a hypothesis.

Step 2. Ask a Question

Once a researcher has observed something and gained some background information on the topic, the next step is to ask a question. The researcher will form a hypothesis, which is an educated guess about the relationship between two or more variables

For example, a researcher might ask a question about the relationship between sleep and academic performance. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Do students who get more sleep perform better on tests at school?

In order to formulate a good hypothesis, it is important to think about different questions you might have about a particular topic. You should also consider how you could investigate the causes. Falsifiability is an important part of any valid hypothesis. In other words, if a hypothesis was false, there needs to be a way for scientists to demonstrate that it is false.

Step 3. Test Your Hypothesis and Collect Data

Once you have a solid hypothesis, the next step of the scientific method is to put this hunch to the test by collecting data. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The exact methods used to investigate a hypothesis depend on exactly what is being studied. There are two basic forms of research that a psychologist might utilize – descriptive research or experimental research.

Descriptive research is typically used when it would be difficult or even impossible to manipulate the variables in question. Examples of descriptive research include case studies, naturalistic observation, and correlation studies. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Phone surveys that are often used by marketers are one example of descriptive research.

Correlational studies are quite common in psychology research. While they do not allow researchers to determine cause-and-effect, they do make it possible to spot relationships between different variables and to measure the strength of those relationships. 

Experimental research is used to explore cause-and-effect relationships between two or more variables. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This type of research involves systematically manipulating an independent variable and then measuring the effect that it has on a defined dependent variable. One of the major advantages of this method is that it allows researchers to actually determine if changes in one variable actually cause changes in another.

While psychology experiments are often quite complex, a simple experiment is fairly basic but does allow researchers to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Most simple experiments use a control group (those who do not receive the treatment) and an experimental group (those who do receive the treatment).

Step 4. Examine the Results and Draw Conclusions

Once a researcher has designed the study and collected the data, it is time to examine this information and draw conclusions about what has been found. Using statistics, researchers can summarize the data, analyze the results, and draw conclusions based on this evidence.

So how does a researcher decide what the results of a study mean? Not only can statistical analysis support (or refute) the researcher’s hypothesis; it can also be used to determine if the findings are statistically significant.

When results are said to be statistically significant, it means that it is unlikely that these results are due to chance.

Based on these observations, researchers must then determine what the results mean. In some cases, an experiment will support a hypothesis, but in other cases, it will fail to support the hypothesis.

So what happens if the results of a psychology experiment do not support the researcher's hypothesis? Does this mean that the study was worthless? Just because the findings fail to support the hypothesis does not mean that the research is not useful or informative. In fact, such research plays an important role in helping scientists develop new questions and hypotheses to explore in the future.

After conclusions have been drawn, the next step is to share the results with the rest of the scientific community. This is an important part of the process because it contributes to the overall knowledge base and can help other scientists find new research avenues to explore.

Step 5. Report the Results

The final step in a psychology study is to report the findings. This is often done by writing up a description of the study and publishing the article in an academic or professional journal. The results of psychological studies can be seen in peer-reviewed journals such as Psychological Bulletin, the Journal of Social Psychology, Developmental Psychology, and many others.

2. Define learning. Elucidate the principles of classical conditioning with the help of Pavlov’s experiment. 

Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) is learning through association and was discovered by Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. In simple terms, two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 John Watson proposed that the process of classical conditioning (based on Pavlov’s observations) was able to explain all aspects of human psychology.

Everything from speech to emotional responses was simply patterns of stimulus and response. Watson denied completely the existence of the mind or consciousness. Watson believed that all individual differences in behavior were due to different experiences of learning. He famously said:

How Classical Conditioning Works

Stage 1: Before Conditioning:

In this stage, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces an unconditioned response (UCR) in an organism.

In basic terms, this means that a stimulus in the environment has produced a behavior / response which is unlearned (i.e., unconditioned) and therefore is a natural response which has not been taught. In this respect, no new behavior has been learned yet.

This stage also involves another stimulus which has no effect on a person and is called the neutral stimulus (NS). BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The NS could be a person, object, place, etc.

The neutral stimulus in classical conditioning does not produce a response until it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Stage 2: During Conditioning:

During this stage, a stimulus which produces no response (i.e., neutral) is associated with the unconditioned stimulus at which point it now becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS).

For example, a stomach virus (UCS) might be associated with eating a certain food such as chocolate (CS). Also, perfume (UCS) might be associated with a specific person (CS).

For classical conditioning to be effective, the conditioned stimulus should occur before the unconditioned stimulus, rather than after it, or during the same time. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Thus, the conditioned stimulus acts as a type of signal or cue for the unconditioned stimulus.

In some cases, conditioning may take place if the NS occurs after the UCS (backward conditioning), but this normally disappears quite quickly. The most important aspect of the conditioning stimulus is the it helps the organism predict the coming of the unconditional stimulus.

Often during this stage, the UCS must be associated with the CS on a number of occasions, or trials, for learning to take place. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 However, one trail learning can happen on certain occasions when it is not necessary for an association to be strengthened over time (such as being sick after food poisoning or drinking too much alcohol).

Stage 3: After Conditioning:

Now the conditioned stimulus (CS) has been associated with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to create a new conditioned response (CR).

Principles of Classical Conditioning

Neutral Stimulus

In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus (NS) is a stimulus that initially does not evoke a response until it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 For example, in Pavlov’s experiment the bell was the neutral stimulus, and only produced a response when it was paired with food.

Unconditioned Stimulus

In classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus is a feature of the environment that causes a natural and automatic unconditioned response. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 In pavlov's study the unconditioned stimulus was food.

Unconditioned Response

In classical conditioning, an unconditioned response is an unlearned response that occurs automatically when the unconditioned stimulus is presented. Pavlov showed the existence of the unconditioned response by presenting a dog with a bowl of food and the measuring its salivary secretions

Conditioned Stimulus

In classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus (CS) is a substitute stimulus that triggers the same response in an organism as an unconditioned stimulus. Simply put, a conditioned stimulus makes an organism react to something because it is associated with something else. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 For example, Pavlov’s dog learned to salivate at the sound of a bell.

Conditioned Response

In classical conditioning, the conditioned response (CR) is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. In Ivan Pavlov's experiments in classical conditioning, the dog's salivation was the conditioned response to the sound of a bell.

Acquisition

In the initial period of learning, acquisition describes when an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.

Extinction

In psychology, extinction refers to gradual weakening of a conditioned response by breaking the association between the conditioned and the unconditioned stimuli.

For example, when the bell was repeatedly rang and no food presented Pavlov’s dog gradually stopped salivating at the sound of the bell.

Spontaneous Recovery

Spontaneous Recovery is a is a phenomenon of Pavlovian conditioning that refers to the return of a conditioned response (in a weaker form) after a period of time following extinction. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 For example, when Pavlov waited a few days after extinguishing the conditioned response, and then rang the bell once more, the dog salivated again.

Generalisation

In psychology, generalisation is the tendency to respond in the same way to stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus. For example, in Pavlov's experiment, if a dog is conditioned to salivated to the sound of a bell, it may later salivate to a higher pitched bell.

Discrimination

In classical conditioning, discrimination is a process through which individuals learn to differentiate among similar stimuli and respond appropriately to each one.

For example, eventually Pavlov’s dog learns the difference between the sound of the 2 bells and no longer salivates at the sound of the non-food bell.

3. Explain the following: 

a) Drive-reduction Model of Motivation 

A theory of motivation developed by Clark L. Hull, the Drive-Reduction Theory focuses on how motivation originates from biological needs or drives. In this theory, Hull proposed a person’s behaviour is an external display of his desire to satisfy his physical deficiencies.

Origin of the Theory

Clark L. Hull was working at Yale University when he began to develop the drive-reduction theory. Inspired by several prominent scientists such as John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike and Charles Darwin, Hull based his theory on the earlier theories that relate to the concepts of motivation. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 His theory is grounded on the principle of homeostasis, believing that behaviour is one of the ways in which a person can maintain the state of homeostasis or balance. The theory was further developed by Kenneth Spence as it began to be a major theory of motivation in the late 1940s.

The Theory

A “drive” is a state of arousal or tension triggered by a person’s physiological or biological needs. These needs include hunger, thirst, need for warmth, etc. In this theory, Hull stated that drives give rise to an individual’s motivation. Furthermore, Hull explained that an individual is in a state of need when his survival is threatened. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 When a person’s drive emerges, he will be in an unpleasant state of tension and the person will behave in such a way that this tension is reduced. To reduce the tension, he will begin seeking out ways to satisfy his biological needs. For instance, you will look for water to drink if you are thirsty. You will seek for food if you are hungry.

According to the theory, any behaviour that reduces the drives will be repeated by humans and animals. This is because the reduction of the drive serves as a positive reinforcement (i.e. a reward) for the behaviour that caused such drive reduction.

Application

Today, the drive-reduction theory is largely ignored in the field of psychology, despite the glory it has enjoyed from 1940s to 1950s. While drive-reduction theory is not much put into practical application nowadays, it is useful for students to learn about the theory, its concepts and its influence to modern psychology. In this way, the students would be able to know how other theorists built on the drive-reduction theory and why some theorists proposed concepts opposing Hull’s Theory.

Criticisms

While Hull’s drive-reduction theory explains how primary reinforcers are effective in reducing drives, many psychologists argued that the theory is not applicable in the concept of secondary reinforces. For example, money is a powerful secondary reinforcer as it can be used to purchase primary reinforcers like food and water. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 However, money in itself cannot reduce an individual’s drives. Another problem with the theory is that it does not provide an explanation about the reason behind people engaging in behaviors that are not meant to reduce drives, such as a person eating even if he is not hungry.

b) The Hierarchical Model of Motivation 

Maslow has classified the human needs in five categories and arranges these categories of needs in a hierarchical order. When lower needs are satisfied, the individual attempts to satisfy the higher needs.

An organism remains in tension if needs are not satisfied. The organism makes efforts to release his tension. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Thus, ‘need’ is a factor of motivation- Every behaviour of an organism is rooted by his need. The psychological force which encourages individual to emit a specific behaviour is known as need.

There are two types of needs:

1. Physiological needs, and

2. Mental or psychological needs.

The nature of motivation is psycho-physical. When physiological needs are satisfied, the behaviour change is satisfaction, but psychological needs play an important role in determining the behaviour, because such needs are never satisfied. Most of the human behaviour is controlled and determined by the psychological needs.

Murry’s Need Theory and Maslow’s Hierarchical Theory of Motivation have explained the nature and functions of psychological needs, but Maslow’s theory is most useful and meaningful in this regard.

1. Physiological Needs:

This is an initial stage of human needs, e.g., hunger, thirst and sex. When these needs are not satisfied, total behaviour is governed by these needs. Until and unless physiological needs are not satisfied, the higher needs are not created. It is the lowest level of human needs but they should be satisfied then higher needs can be generated.

2. Safety Needs:

After satisfying physiological needs, the safety needs are created in an individual. The children have more safety needs than the adults, for example- need of life safety, all organism want to have live long safety. It is also lower level of need.

3. Needs of Belongingness:

When the first two needs are satisfied, the needs of belongingness are generated. Every person wants to make his friends and requires identification in the group. He shows affection and love to others and wants that other should also love him.

The needs this type are satisfied in this family and society-e.g., make friends, give recognition and love any one, etc.

4. Esteem Needs:

It is higher level need, because it involves the self-respect. An individual wants power and commend respect. He provides leadership and wants to live freely. Such needs are created when all earlier needs have been satisfied. The examples of esteem needs are—success, self-respect, self-confidences, etc. The needs develop the feeling of inferiority, if they are not satisfied.

5. Need of Self-Actualization:

This is the highest level of need according to Maslow’s theory. It is created in an individual when his earlier four needs are fully satisfied.

Section-B

Answer the following questions in about 100 words each. Each question carries 5 marks.  

4. Latent learning 

In psychology, latent learning refers to knowledge that only becomes clear when a person has an incentive to display it. For example, a child might learn how to complete a math problem in class, but this learning is not immediately apparent. Only when the child is offered some form of reinforcement for completing the problem does this learning reveal itself.

Latent learning is important because in most cases the information we have learned is not always recognizable until the moment that we need to display it. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 While you might have learned how to cook a roast by watching your parents prepare dinner, this learning may not be apparent until you find yourself having to cook a meal on your own. 

When we think about the learning process, we often focus only on learning that is immediately obvious. We teach a rat to run through a maze by offering rewards for correct responses. We train a student to raise his hand in the class by offering praise for the appropriate behaviors. But not all learning is immediately apparent.

The term latent learning was coined by psychologist Edward Tolman during his research with rats, although the first observations of this phenomenon were made earlier by researcher Hugh Blodgett. In experiments that involved having groups of rats run a maze, rats that initially received no reward still learned the course during the non-reward trials.1 Once rewards were introduced, the rats were able to draw upon their "cognitive map" of the course. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 These observations demonstrated that learning could take place even when an organism does not display it right away. Consider, for example, your knowledge of various routes in your hometown. Every day you travel a variety of routes and learn the locations of different businesses in your town. However, this learning is latent because you are not using it most of the time. It is only when you need to find a specific location such as the nearest coffee shop or bus stop that you are required to draw on and demonstrate what you have learned.

5. Stanford-Binet Scale of Intelligence 

The Stanford Binet Scales—Fifth Edition (SB5) is intended for examinees between the ages of 2 and 85 years old (Roid, 2003). The SB5 is heavily based on the aforementioned CHC theory. The SB5 test is divided into two domains: a verbal and non-verbal domain and the test measures five CHC factors: fluid intelligence (Gf), crystallized knowledge (Gc), quantitative knowledge (Gq), visual processing (Gv), and short-term memory (Gsm). BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Each of these five factors both has a verbal and non-verbal subtest. Therefore, the SB5 consists of 10 subtests in total that yield composite scores of a verbal IQ (VIQ), a non-verbal IQ (NVIQ), and full-scale IQ (FSIQ).

The SB5 test demonstrates high scores across various measures of reliability. The internal consistency coefficient for the FSIQ composite score is very high and ranges from r =0 .97 to 0.98. Both the verbal and nonverbal IQ domains were also found to have high reliability with respective averages of r =0 .96, and r = 0.95. Internal reliability was also impressive among the five subtests with mean coefficients ranging from r = 0.84 to 89 (Strauss et al., 2006). In order to evaluate test-retest reliability, after a time interval of five to eight days between the first and second administration of the test, correlations were examined in four primary age groups: preschoolers (age 2–5), children and young adults (6–20), adults (21–59), and older adults (60+) (Roid, 2003). Across all age groups, reliability measures for the FSIQ and VIQ domain were very high and ranged between r = 0.93 and 0.95. Reliability for the NVIQ domain was slightly lower and ranged from r = 0.89 to 0.93 (Strauss et al., 2006).

Content validity was established using diverse methods such as extensive literature review, factor analyses of previous editions of the Stanford-Binet, item response theory modeling, expert advice, user surveys, and pilot studies (Roid, 2003; Strauss et al., 2006). To ensure external validity and test fairness, the items were evaluated across genders, and among members from various cultural, linguistic, racial, ethnic and religious groups.

The Wechsler Intelligence Scales, Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, and the Kauffman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition are four standardized and clinically and legally accepted measures of intellectual function. The Wechsler scales include three individually administered scales of intelligence. The Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence – Fourth Edition (WIPPSI-IV) measures cognitive development in preschoolers and young children ages 2.6–7.7 years (Wechsler, 2012). The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Fifth Edition (WISC–V) measures a child's intellectual ability and is appropriate for children 6.0–16.11 years (Wechsler, 2014). The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) measures an adult's intellectual ability and is appropriate for persons 16.0–90.11 years (Wechsler, 2008).

6. Difference between emotions and mood 

The main difference between mood and emotion is that an emotion may last only minutes, whereas a mood tends to last longer.  

Mood and emotions are two words that describe our mental state. When you are in a good mood, you feel happy and relaxed; when you are in a bad mood, you may feel grumpy and angry. Therefore, it’s clear that emotions are connected to your mood. However, they are not the same. In fact, a mood is a mix of emotions and feelings.

Mood

A mood is a mental, physical, and emotional state that may last for several hours or days. It is a mix of feelings and emotions. Moods are not usually related to a specific circumstance or incidence, but a collection of feelings and emotions. Several factors such as environment (people around us, weather, etc.), physiology (what we eat, our health, etc.) emotions and feelings affect our last. For example, when we are with people we like, eating our favourite food, we feel happy and joyful. This creates a good mood. This mood may last for several hours or even days. However, this is a temporary state of mind.

Emotion

An emotion is a strong feeling originating from one’s circumstances, mood, or relationships with others. It is a conscious mentality, usually directed toward a specific object. Emotions typically accompany physiological and behavioural changes in the body. Joy, sorrow, fear, hate, anger, love, etc. are some examples of emotions we experience. Moreover, it is important to note that emotions are not long-lasting, meaning they can change within a few minutes. It’s also possible to feel a mixture of emotions at once. For example, when you are in an unknown place, you may feel a range of emotions such as curiosity and fear.

Furthermore, emotions are intense and are caused by immediate circumstances. For instance, something someone said, some memories you remembered, something you just saw, etc.

7. Process of sensation 

Sensation happens when our five senses receive sensitive information from the world and send it to our brain. Explore how the brain works as an invisible workforce, learn the definition of sensation in psychology, and discover the concepts and roles of the five sensory systems, including vision, hearing, touch, taste, and smell.

The Invisible Work Force

Imagine you're sitting at a park having a picnic on a sunny spring evening. You just finished taking a big psychology exam, and you are relaxing on the green grass without a care in the world. The birds are singing, you feel the warmth of the setting sun on your skin, the aroma of dogwood trees in bloom is in the air, the taste of your favorite sandwich still on your tongue. Sounds pretty relaxing, right?

Even though you might feel relaxed, your nervous system is hard at work, like an invisible workforce. In order to experience that relaxing day, you must first have the ability to internalize all those pleasant things that are going on around you at the park. In other words, if your brain is not aware of the environment, then you can't truly experience it.

Sensation is the first step in the process of allowing your brain to experience the features and characteristics of the environment around you.

Sensation is the process that allows our brains to take in information via our five senses, which can then be experienced and interpreted by the brain. Sensation occurs thanks to our five sensory systems: vision, hearing, taste, smell and touch. Each of these systems maintains unique neural pathways with the brain which allows them to transfer information from the environment to the brain very rapidly. Without sensation, we would not be able to enjoy the sunny spring day at the park.

Each sensory system contains unique sensory receptors, which are designed to detect specific environmental stimuli. Once detected, sensory receptors convert environmental stimulus energy into electrochemical neural impulses. The brain then interprets those neural messages, which allow the brain to experience and make decisions about the environment. Let's take a little bit closer look at the process of sensation by examining each of the five sensory systems involved.

Vision

The visual system transfers light energy, which occur naturally in the form of wavelengths, into neural messages via the eyes. This process is known as visuoreception. The subtle qualities of the wavelengths, such as their height, width, and frequency, are detected by structures within our eyes. These subtle differences result in the experience of seeing different colors, shapes, and textures. Thinking back to the park, the ever-changing characteristics of those wavelengths create an image that your brain interprets as the setting sun.

Hearing

The auditory system operates similarly to the visual system in that sounds are transmitted through the environment in the form of wavelengths. Much like wavelengths of light, the qualities of the auditory wavelength will determine the qualities of the sound that is heard in the brain. Sound waves enter the ear, and once the wavelengths reach the middle ear, auditory structures convert these wavelengths into vibrations. The vibrations are transferred into neural impulses, which are sent directly to the brain. This process of detecting vibrations is referred to as mechanoreception. The singing birds in the park emit wavelengths of very specific size and frequency which are picked up by your ears, and you end up experiencing the bird's song.

Touch

Our sense of touch is also facilitated by mechanoreception. Specially designed receptor cells under the skin are designed to sense the slightest amount of pressure. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 We also have thermoreceptor cells under our skin which are able to detect temperature related to touch and temperature and convert that information into information that the brain can use. Remember that warm spring day? Thanks to both of these types of receptors, we can feel the soft grass and the warmth of the sun simultaneously.

8. Muller-Lyre illusion 

The Muller-Lyer illusion is a well-known optical illusion in which two lines of the same length appear to be of different lengths. The illusion was first created by a German psychologist named Franz Carl Muller-Lyer in 1889.

In the top half of image above, which line appears the longest? For most people, the line with the fins of the arrow protruding outward (the center line) appears to be the longest, while the line with the arrow fins pointing inwards appears shorter. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 While your eyes might tell you that line in the middle is the longest, the shafts of both lines are exactly the same length, as shown in the bottom half of the image. Like other optical illusions, the Muller-Lyer illusion has become the subject of considerable interest in psychology over the years. Different theories have emerged to explain the phenomenon.

Other researchers contend that Gregory's explanation does not sufficiently explain this illusion. For example, other versions of the Muller-Lyer illusion utilize two circles at the end of the shaft. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 While there are no depth cues, the illusion still occurs. It has also been demonstrated that the illusion can even occur when viewing three-dimensional objects.

The Depth Cue Explanation

Depth plays an important role in our ability to judge distance. One explanation of the Muller-Lyer illusion is that our brains perceive the depths of the two shafts based upon depth cues. When the fins are pointing in toward the shaft of the line, we perceive it as sloping away much like the corner of a building. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This depth cue leads us to see that line as further away and therefore shorter.

When the fins are pointing outward away from the line, it looks more like the corner of a room sloping toward the viewer. This depth cue leads us to believe that this line is closer and therefore longer.

The Conflicting Cues Explanation

An alternative explanation proposed by R. H. Day suggests that the Muller-Lyer illusion occurs because of conflicting cues. Our ability to perceive the length of the lines depends on the actual length of the line itself and the overall length of the figure.3 Since the total length of one figure is longer than the length of the lines themselves, it causes the line with the outward-facing fins to be seen as longer.

Researchers from the University of London suggest that the illusion demonstrates how the brain reflexively judges information about length and size before anything else.4

"Many visual illusions might be so effective because they tap into how the human brain reflexively processes information. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 If an illusion can capture attention in this way, then this suggests that the brain processes these visual clues rapidly and unconsciously. This also suggests that perhaps optical illusions represent what our brains like to see," explained researcher Dr. Michael Proulx.

9. Projective techniques 

Projective Techniques are indirect and unstructured methods of investigation which have been developed by the psychologists and use projection of respondents for inferring about underline motives, urges or intentions which cannot be secure through direct questioning as the respondent either resists to reveal them or is unable to figure out himself. These techniques are useful in giving respondents opportunities to express their attitudes without personal embarrassment. These techniques helps the respondents to project his own attitude and feelings unconsciously on the subject under study. Thus Projective Techniques play a important role in motivational researches or in attitude surveys.

Important Projective Techniques

1.       Word Association Test.

2.       Completion Test.

3.       Construction Techniques

4.       Expression Techniques

Word Association Test: An individual is given a clue or hint and asked to respond to the first thing that comes to mind. The association can take the shape of a picture or a word. There can be many interpretations of the same thing. A list of words is given and you don’t know in which word they are most interested. The interviewer records the responses which reveal the inner feeling of the respondents. The frequency with which any word is given a response and the amount of time that elapses before the response is given are important for the researcher. For eg: Out of 50 respondents 20 people associate the word “ Fair” with “Complexion”.

Completion Test: In this the respondents are asked to complete an incomplete sentence or story. The completion will reflect their attitude and state of mind.

Construction Test: This is more or less like completion test. They can give you a picture and you are asked to write a story about it. The initial structure is limited and not detailed like the completion test. For eg: 2 cartoons are given and a dialogue is to written.

Expression Techniques: In this the people are asked to express the feeling or attitude of other people.

10. Superego 

Superego, in the psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, the latest developing of three agencies (with the id and ego) of the human personality. The superego is the ethical component of the personality and provides the moral standards by which the ego operates. The superego’s criticisms, prohibitions, and inhibitions form a person’s conscience, and its positive aspirations and ideals represent one’s idealized self-image, or “ego ideal.”

The superego develops during the first five years of life in response to parental punishment and approval. This development occurs as a result of the child’s internalization of his parents’ moral standards, a process greatly aided by a tendency to identify with the parents. The developing superego absorbs the traditions of the family and the surrounding society and serves to control aggressive or other socially unacceptable impulses. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Violation of the superego’s standards results in feelings of guilt or anxiety and a need to atone for one’s actions. The superego continues to develop into young adulthood as a person encounters other admired role models and copes with the rules and regulations of the larger society. See also Oedipus complex.

11. Thurstone’s theory of intelligence

Louis Leon Thurstone proposed his multiple-factor theory of intelligence in 1938. Before this theory came, the notion of the g-factor, i.e., general intelligence, which had been proposed by a British Psychologist, Charles Spearman, was more prevalent. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Thurstone brings the concept of multiple factors associated with human intelligence instead of a single factor, i.e., general intelligence. He stated that every individual possesses different levels of seven primary mental abilities, i.e., word fluency, verbal factor, numerical factor, inductive reasoning, memory, spatial visualization, and perceptual speed. We’ll discuss Thurstone’s theory and the seven primary mental abilities in this article.

Louis Leon Thurstone was an American Psychologist, who was born on 29 May 1887 in Chicago, USA. Initially, he was interested in engineering and mathematics that inspired him to do an electrical engineering degree from Cornell University, New York. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 He worked for Thomas Edison as an assistant for a short period, and in 1912, he started teaching at the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. During his teaching period, he developed his interest in the psychology of learning. After completing his doctorate in psychology in 1917, he started working as the chairman of the psychology department at the Carnegie Institute of Technology. Later, he became a professor at the University of Chicago.BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Thurstone had a keen interest in understanding and explaining the various psychological phenomenon in a scientific manner that led him and his followers to establish the ‘The Psychometric Society’ (psychological measurement lab) in Chicago in 1935; this society promoted the idea of ‘Psychology as a Quantitative Rational Science.’ He is famous for his contribution to the factor analysis technique and development of psychometrics. Psychometrics involves the scientific measurement of various mental processes, and factor analysis is a statistical method used to find the correlation among the different variables. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The factor analysis method was originally used by Charles Edward Spearman; Thurstone did further advancements in this method, which helped him establish various psychometric methods and develop his multi-factor theory of intelligence. He developed the ‘Primary Mental Ability Test’ (1938) that measures the various factors related to human intelligence. He published varieties of books and monographs, and some of them are ‘The Nature of Intelligence,’ ‘The Measurement of Attitude,’ ‘The vector of Mind,’ ‘Primary Mental Abilities,’ and ‘Multiple-factor Analysis.’ In 1952, Thurston shifted his Psychometrics lab of Chicago to the University of North Carolina, and he worked as a professor there until his death on 29 September 1955.

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BPCC 132 Solved Assignment 2021-22

BPCC 133 Solved Assignment 2021-22

BPCC 134 Solved Assignment 2021-22

Those students who had successfully submitted their Assignments to their allocated study centres can now check their Assignment Status. Along with assignment status, they can also checkout their assignment marks & result. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 All this is available in an online mode. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 After submitting the assignment, you can check you IGNOU Assignment Status only after 3-4 weeks. It might take 40 days to declare.

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Here the scholars can check their IGNOU Assignment Status 2020, marks, result or both the sessions i.e; June & December.

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