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BPCC 131 Solved
Assignment 2021-22
COURSE
CODE : BPCC-131
COURSE
TITLE : FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY
ASSIGNMENT
CODE : BPCC-131/TMA/2021-22
Maximum
Marks: 100
Note: Attempt all the questions.
Section-A
Answer the following questions in about 500 words each. Each question carries 20 marks.
1. Explain the basic steps and methods of research in psychology.
Psychologists and other social scientists regularly propose
explanations for human behavior. On a more informal level, people make
judgments about the intentions, motivations, and actions of others on a daily
basis. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 While the everyday judgments we make about human behavior are subjective
and anecdotal, researchers use the scientific method to study psychology in an
objective and systematic way. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The results of these studies are often reported
in popular media, which leads many to wonder just how or why researchers
arrived at the conclusions they did.
The Steps of the
Scientific Method
While research studies can vary, these are the basic steps
that psychologists and scientists use when investigating human behavior.
Step 1. Make an
Observation
Before a researcher can begin, they must choose a topic to
study. Once an area of interest has been chosen, the researchers must then
conduct a thorough review of the existing literature on the subject. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This
review will provide valuable information about what has already been learned
about the topic and what questions remain to be answered.
A literature review might involve looking at a considerable
amount of written material from both books and academic journals dating back
decades. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The relevant information collected by the researcher will be presented
in the introduction section of the final published study results. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This
background material will also help the researcher with the first major step in
conducting a psychology study — formulating a hypothesis.
Step 2. Ask a
Question
Once a researcher has observed something and gained some
background information on the topic, the next step is to ask a question. The
researcher will form a hypothesis, which is an educated guess about the
relationship between two or more variables
For example, a researcher might ask a question about the
relationship between sleep and academic performance. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Do students who get more
sleep perform better on tests at school?
In order to formulate a good hypothesis, it is important to
think about different questions you might have about a particular topic. You
should also consider how you could investigate the causes. Falsifiability is an
important part of any valid hypothesis. In other words, if a hypothesis was
false, there needs to be a way for scientists to demonstrate that it is false.
Step 3. Test Your
Hypothesis and Collect Data
Once you have a solid hypothesis, the next step of the
scientific method is to put this hunch to the test by collecting data. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The
exact methods used to investigate a hypothesis depend on exactly what is being
studied. There are two basic forms of research that a psychologist might
utilize – descriptive research or experimental research.
Descriptive research is typically used when it would be
difficult or even impossible to manipulate the variables in question. Examples
of descriptive research include case studies, naturalistic observation,
and correlation studies. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Phone surveys that are often used by marketers are one
example of descriptive research.
Correlational studies are quite common in psychology
research. While they do not allow researchers to determine cause-and-effect,
they do make it possible to spot relationships between different variables and
to measure the strength of those relationships.
Experimental research is used to explore
cause-and-effect relationships between two or more variables. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This type of
research involves systematically manipulating an independent variable and
then measuring the effect that it has on a defined dependent variable. One
of the major advantages of this method is that it allows researchers to
actually determine if changes in one variable actually cause changes in
another.
While psychology experiments are often quite
complex, a simple experiment is fairly basic but does allow
researchers to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Most
simple experiments use a control group (those who do not receive the
treatment) and an experimental group (those who do receive the
treatment).
Step 4. Examine the
Results and Draw Conclusions
Once a researcher has designed the study and collected the
data, it is time to examine this information and draw conclusions about what
has been found. Using statistics, researchers can summarize the data,
analyze the results, and draw conclusions based on this evidence.
So how does a researcher decide what the results of a study
mean? Not only can statistical analysis support (or refute) the researcher’s
hypothesis; it can also be used to determine if the findings are statistically
significant.
When results are said to be statistically significant, it
means that it is unlikely that these results are due to chance.
Based on these observations, researchers must then determine
what the results mean. In some cases, an experiment will support a hypothesis,
but in other cases, it will fail to support the hypothesis.
So what happens if the results of a psychology experiment do
not support the researcher's hypothesis? Does this mean that the study was
worthless? Just because the findings fail to support the hypothesis does not
mean that the research is not useful or informative. In fact, such research
plays an important role in helping scientists develop new questions and
hypotheses to explore in the future.
After conclusions have been drawn, the next step is to share
the results with the rest of the scientific community. This is an important
part of the process because it contributes to the overall knowledge base and
can help other scientists find new research avenues to explore.
Step 5.
Report the Results
The final step in a psychology study is to report the findings. This is often done by writing up a description of the study and publishing the article in an academic or professional journal. The results of psychological studies can be seen in peer-reviewed journals such as Psychological Bulletin, the Journal of Social Psychology, Developmental Psychology, and many others.
2. Define learning. Elucidate the principles of classical conditioning with the help of Pavlov’s experiment.
Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or
respondent conditioning) is learning through association and was discovered by
Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. In simple terms, two stimuli are linked
together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 John Watson
proposed that the process of classical conditioning (based on Pavlov’s
observations) was able to explain all aspects of human psychology.
Everything from speech to emotional responses was simply
patterns of stimulus and response. Watson denied completely the existence of
the mind or consciousness. Watson believed that all individual differences in
behavior were due to different experiences of learning. He famously said:
How Classical
Conditioning Works
Stage 1: Before
Conditioning:
In this stage, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces an
unconditioned response (UCR) in an organism.
In basic terms, this means that a stimulus in the
environment has produced a behavior / response which is unlearned (i.e.,
unconditioned) and therefore is a natural response which has not been taught.
In this respect, no new behavior has been learned yet.
This stage also involves another stimulus which has no
effect on a person and is called the neutral stimulus (NS). BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The NS could be a
person, object, place, etc.
The neutral stimulus in classical conditioning does not
produce a response until it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
Stage 2: During
Conditioning:
During this stage, a stimulus which produces no response
(i.e., neutral) is associated with the unconditioned stimulus at which point it
now becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS).
For example, a stomach virus (UCS) might be associated with
eating a certain food such as chocolate (CS). Also, perfume (UCS) might be
associated with a specific person (CS).
For classical conditioning to be effective, the conditioned
stimulus should occur before the unconditioned stimulus, rather than after it,
or during the same time. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Thus, the conditioned stimulus acts as a type of
signal or cue for the unconditioned stimulus.
In some cases, conditioning may take place if the NS occurs
after the UCS (backward conditioning), but this normally disappears quite
quickly. The most important aspect of the conditioning stimulus is the it helps
the organism predict the coming of the unconditional stimulus.
Often during this stage, the UCS must be associated with the
CS on a number of occasions, or trials, for learning to take place. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 However,
one trail learning can happen on certain occasions when it is not necessary for
an association to be strengthened over time (such as being sick after food
poisoning or drinking too much alcohol).
Stage 3: After
Conditioning:
Now the conditioned stimulus (CS) has been associated with
the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to create a new conditioned response (CR).
Principles of
Classical Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus
In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus (NS) is a
stimulus that initially does not evoke a response until it is paired with the
unconditioned stimulus. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 For example, in Pavlov’s experiment the bell was the
neutral stimulus, and only produced a response when it was paired with food.
Unconditioned
Stimulus
In classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus is a
feature of the environment that causes a natural and automatic unconditioned
response. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 In pavlov's study the unconditioned stimulus was food.
Unconditioned
Response
In classical conditioning, an unconditioned response is an
unlearned response that occurs automatically when the unconditioned stimulus is
presented. Pavlov showed the existence of the unconditioned response by
presenting a dog with a bowl of food and the measuring its salivary secretions
Conditioned Stimulus
In classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus (CS) is
a substitute stimulus that triggers the same response in an organism as an
unconditioned stimulus. Simply put, a conditioned stimulus makes an organism
react to something because it is associated with something else. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 For example,
Pavlov’s dog learned to salivate at the sound of a bell.
Conditioned Response
In classical conditioning, the conditioned response (CR) is
the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. In Ivan Pavlov's
experiments in classical conditioning, the dog's salivation was the conditioned
response to the sound of a bell.
Acquisition
In the initial period of learning, acquisition describes
when an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned
stimulus.
Extinction
In psychology, extinction refers to gradual weakening of a
conditioned response by breaking the association between the conditioned and
the unconditioned stimuli.
For example, when the bell was repeatedly rang and no food
presented Pavlov’s dog gradually stopped salivating at the sound of the bell.
Spontaneous Recovery
Spontaneous Recovery is a is a phenomenon of Pavlovian
conditioning that refers to the return of a conditioned response (in a weaker
form) after a period of time following extinction. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 For example, when Pavlov
waited a few days after extinguishing the conditioned response, and then rang
the bell once more, the dog salivated again.
Generalisation
In psychology, generalisation is the tendency to respond in
the same way to stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned
stimulus. For example, in Pavlov's experiment, if a dog is conditioned to
salivated to the sound of a bell, it may later salivate to a higher pitched bell.
Discrimination
In classical conditioning, discrimination is a process
through which individuals learn to differentiate among similar stimuli and
respond appropriately to each one.
For example, eventually Pavlov’s dog learns the difference between the sound of the 2 bells and no longer salivates at the sound of the non-food bell.
3. Explain the following:
a) Drive-reduction Model of Motivation
A theory of motivation developed by Clark L. Hull, the
Drive-Reduction Theory focuses on how motivation originates from biological
needs or drives. In this theory, Hull proposed a person’s behaviour is an
external display of his desire to satisfy his physical deficiencies.
Origin of the Theory
Clark L. Hull was working at Yale University when he began
to develop the drive-reduction theory. Inspired by several prominent scientists
such as John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike and Charles Darwin, Hull
based his theory on the earlier theories that relate to the concepts of
motivation. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 His theory is grounded on the principle of homeostasis, believing
that behaviour is one of the ways in which a person can maintain the state of
homeostasis or balance. The theory was further developed by Kenneth Spence as
it began to be a major theory of motivation in the late 1940s.
The Theory
A “drive” is a state of arousal or tension triggered by a
person’s physiological or biological needs. These needs include hunger, thirst,
need for warmth, etc. In this theory, Hull stated that drives give rise to an
individual’s motivation. Furthermore, Hull explained that an individual is in a
state of need when his survival is threatened. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 When a person’s drive emerges,
he will be in an unpleasant state of tension and the person will behave in such
a way that this tension is reduced. To reduce the tension, he will begin
seeking out ways to satisfy his biological needs. For instance, you will look
for water to drink if you are thirsty. You will seek for food if you are
hungry.
According to the theory, any behaviour that reduces the
drives will be repeated by humans and animals. This is because the reduction of
the drive serves as a positive reinforcement (i.e. a reward) for the behaviour
that caused such drive reduction.
Application
Today, the drive-reduction theory is largely ignored in the
field of psychology, despite the glory it has enjoyed from 1940s to 1950s.
While drive-reduction theory is not much put into practical application
nowadays, it is useful for students to learn about the theory, its concepts and
its influence to modern psychology. In this way, the students would be able to
know how other theorists built on the drive-reduction theory and why some
theorists proposed concepts opposing Hull’s Theory.
Criticisms
While Hull’s drive-reduction theory explains how primary reinforcers are effective in reducing drives, many psychologists argued that the theory is not applicable in the concept of secondary reinforces. For example, money is a powerful secondary reinforcer as it can be used to purchase primary reinforcers like food and water. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 However, money in itself cannot reduce an individual’s drives. Another problem with the theory is that it does not provide an explanation about the reason behind people engaging in behaviors that are not meant to reduce drives, such as a person eating even if he is not hungry.
b) The Hierarchical Model of Motivation
Maslow has classified the human needs in five categories and
arranges these categories of needs in a hierarchical order. When lower needs
are satisfied, the individual attempts to satisfy the higher needs.
An organism remains in tension if needs are not satisfied.
The organism makes efforts to release his tension. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Thus, ‘need’ is a factor of
motivation- Every behaviour of an organism is rooted by his need. The
psychological force which encourages individual to emit a specific behaviour is
known as need.
There are two types
of needs:
1. Physiological needs, and
2. Mental or psychological needs.
The nature of motivation is psycho-physical. When
physiological needs are satisfied, the behaviour change is satisfaction, but
psychological needs play an important role in determining the behaviour,
because such needs are never satisfied. Most of the human behaviour is
controlled and determined by the psychological needs.
Murry’s Need Theory and Maslow’s Hierarchical Theory of
Motivation have explained the nature and functions of psychological needs, but
Maslow’s theory is most useful and meaningful in this regard.
1. Physiological
Needs:
This is an initial stage of human needs, e.g., hunger,
thirst and sex. When these needs are not satisfied, total behaviour is governed
by these needs. Until and unless physiological needs are not satisfied, the
higher needs are not created. It is the lowest level of human needs but they
should be satisfied then higher needs can be generated.
2. Safety Needs:
After satisfying physiological needs, the safety needs are
created in an individual. The children have more safety needs than the adults,
for example- need of life safety, all organism want to have live long safety.
It is also lower level of need.
3. Needs of
Belongingness:
When the first two needs are satisfied, the needs of
belongingness are generated. Every person wants to make his friends and
requires identification in the group. He shows affection and love to others and
wants that other should also love him.
The needs this type are satisfied in this family and
society-e.g., make friends, give recognition and love any one, etc.
4. Esteem Needs:
It is higher level need, because it involves the
self-respect. An individual wants power and commend respect. He provides
leadership and wants to live freely. Such needs are created when all earlier
needs have been satisfied. The examples of esteem needs are—success,
self-respect, self-confidences, etc. The needs develop the feeling of
inferiority, if they are not satisfied.
5. Need of
Self-Actualization:
This is the highest level of need according to Maslow’s theory. It is created in an individual when his earlier four needs are fully satisfied.
Section-B
Answer the following questions in about 100 words each. Each question carries 5 marks.
4. Latent learning
In psychology, latent learning refers to knowledge that only
becomes clear when a person has an incentive to display it. For example, a
child might learn how to complete a math problem in class, but this learning is
not immediately apparent. Only when the child is offered some form of
reinforcement for completing the problem does this learning reveal itself.
Latent learning is important because in most cases the
information we have learned is not always recognizable until the moment that we
need to display it. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 While you might have learned how to cook a roast by
watching your parents prepare dinner, this learning may not be apparent until
you find yourself having to cook a meal on your own.
When we think about the learning process, we
often focus only on learning that is immediately obvious. We teach a rat
to run through a maze by offering rewards for correct responses. We train
a student to raise his hand in the class by offering praise for the appropriate
behaviors. But not all learning is immediately apparent.
The term latent learning was coined by psychologist Edward
Tolman during his research with rats, although the first observations of this
phenomenon were made earlier by researcher Hugh Blodgett. In experiments that
involved having groups of rats run a maze, rats that initially received no
reward still learned the course during the non-reward trials.1 Once rewards
were introduced, the rats were able to draw upon their "cognitive
map" of the course. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 These observations demonstrated that learning could
take place even when an organism does not display it right away. Consider, for
example, your knowledge of various routes in your hometown. Every day you
travel a variety of routes and learn the locations of different businesses in
your town. However, this learning is latent because you are not using it most
of the time. It is only when you need to find a specific location such as the
nearest coffee shop or bus stop that you are required to draw on and
demonstrate what you have learned.
5. Stanford-Binet Scale of Intelligence
The Stanford Binet Scales—Fifth Edition (SB5) is intended
for examinees between the ages of 2 and 85 years old (Roid, 2003). The SB5 is
heavily based on the aforementioned CHC theory. The SB5 test is divided into
two domains: a verbal and non-verbal domain and the test measures five CHC
factors: fluid intelligence (Gf), crystallized knowledge (Gc), quantitative
knowledge (Gq), visual processing (Gv), and short-term memory (Gsm). BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Each of
these five factors both has a verbal and non-verbal subtest. Therefore, the SB5
consists of 10 subtests in total that yield composite scores of a verbal IQ
(VIQ), a non-verbal IQ (NVIQ), and full-scale IQ (FSIQ).
The SB5 test demonstrates high scores across various
measures of reliability. The internal consistency coefficient for the FSIQ
composite score is very high and ranges from r =0 .97 to 0.98. Both
the verbal and nonverbal IQ domains were also found to have high reliability
with respective averages of r =0 .96, and r = 0.95.
Internal reliability was also impressive among the five subtests with mean
coefficients ranging from r = 0.84 to 89 (Strauss et al., 2006).
In order to evaluate test-retest reliability, after a time interval of five to
eight days between the first and second administration of the test,
correlations were examined in four primary age groups: preschoolers (age 2–5),
children and young adults (6–20), adults (21–59), and older adults (60+) (Roid,
2003). Across all age groups, reliability measures for the FSIQ and VIQ domain
were very high and ranged between r = 0.93 and 0.95. Reliability for
the NVIQ domain was slightly lower and ranged from r = 0.89 to 0.93
(Strauss et al., 2006).
Content validity was established using diverse methods such
as extensive literature review, factor analyses of previous editions of the
Stanford-Binet, item response theory modeling, expert advice, user surveys, and
pilot studies (Roid, 2003; Strauss et al., 2006). To ensure external
validity and test fairness, the items were evaluated across genders, and among
members from various cultural, linguistic, racial, ethnic and religious groups.
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales, Stanford-Binet
Intelligence Scales, the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, and
the Kauffman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition are four
standardized and clinically and legally accepted measures of intellectual
function. The Wechsler scales include three individually administered scales of
intelligence. The Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence – Fourth
Edition (WIPPSI-IV) measures cognitive development in preschoolers and young
children ages 2.6–7.7 years (Wechsler, 2012). The Wechsler Intelligence Scale
for Children – Fifth Edition (WISC–V) measures a child's intellectual ability
and is appropriate for children 6.0–16.11 years (Wechsler, 2014). The Wechsler
Adult Intelligence Scale – Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) measures an adult's
intellectual ability and is appropriate for persons 16.0–90.11 years (Wechsler,
2008).
6. Difference between emotions and mood
The main difference between mood and emotion is
that an emotion may last only minutes, whereas a mood tends to last
longer.
Mood and emotions are two words that describe our mental
state. When you are in a good mood, you feel happy and relaxed; when you are in
a bad mood, you may feel grumpy and angry. Therefore, it’s clear that emotions
are connected to your mood. However, they are not the same. In fact, a mood is
a mix of emotions and feelings.
Mood
A mood is a mental, physical, and emotional state that may
last for several hours or days. It is a mix of feelings and emotions. Moods are
not usually related to a specific circumstance or incidence, but a collection
of feelings and emotions. Several factors such as environment (people around
us, weather, etc.), physiology (what we eat, our health, etc.) emotions and
feelings affect our last. For example, when we are with people we like, eating
our favourite food, we feel happy and joyful. This creates a good mood. This
mood may last for several hours or even days. However, this is a temporary
state of mind.
Emotion
An emotion is a strong feeling originating from one’s
circumstances, mood, or relationships with others. It is a conscious mentality,
usually directed toward a specific object. Emotions typically accompany
physiological and behavioural changes in the body. Joy, sorrow,
fear, hate, anger, love, etc. are some examples of emotions we
experience. Moreover, it is important to note that emotions are not
long-lasting, meaning they can change within a few minutes. It’s also possible
to feel a mixture of emotions at once. For example, when you are in an unknown
place, you may feel a range of emotions such as curiosity and fear.
Furthermore, emotions are intense and are caused by immediate circumstances. For instance, something someone said, some memories you remembered, something you just saw, etc.
7. Process of sensation
Sensation happens when our five senses receive sensitive
information from the world and send it to our brain. Explore how the brain
works as an invisible workforce, learn the definition of sensation in
psychology, and discover the concepts and roles of the five sensory systems,
including vision, hearing, touch, taste, and smell.
The Invisible Work
Force
Imagine you're sitting at a park having a picnic on a sunny
spring evening. You just finished taking a big psychology exam, and you are
relaxing on the green grass without a care in the world. The birds are singing,
you feel the warmth of the setting sun on your skin, the aroma of dogwood trees
in bloom is in the air, the taste of your favorite sandwich still on your
tongue. Sounds pretty relaxing, right?
Even though you might feel relaxed, your nervous system is
hard at work, like an invisible workforce. In order to experience that relaxing
day, you must first have the ability to internalize all those pleasant things
that are going on around you at the park. In other words, if your brain is not
aware of the environment, then you can't truly experience it.
Sensation is the first step in the process of allowing your
brain to experience the features and characteristics of the environment around
you.
Sensation is the process that allows our brains to take
in information via our five senses, which can then be experienced and
interpreted by the brain. Sensation occurs thanks to our five sensory systems:
vision, hearing, taste, smell and touch. Each of these systems maintains unique
neural pathways with the brain which allows them to transfer information from
the environment to the brain very rapidly. Without sensation, we would not be
able to enjoy the sunny spring day at the park.
Each sensory system contains unique sensory receptors, which
are designed to detect specific environmental stimuli. Once detected, sensory
receptors convert environmental stimulus energy into electrochemical neural
impulses. The brain then interprets those neural messages, which allow the
brain to experience and make decisions about the environment. Let's take a
little bit closer look at the process of sensation by examining each of the
five sensory systems involved.
Vision
The visual system transfers light energy, which
occur naturally in the form of wavelengths, into neural messages via the eyes.
This process is known as visuoreception. The subtle qualities of the
wavelengths, such as their height, width, and frequency, are detected by
structures within our eyes. These subtle differences result in the experience
of seeing different colors, shapes, and textures. Thinking back to the park,
the ever-changing characteristics of those wavelengths create an image that
your brain interprets as the setting sun.
Hearing
The auditory system operates similarly to the
visual system in that sounds are transmitted through the environment in the
form of wavelengths. Much like wavelengths of light, the qualities of the
auditory wavelength will determine the qualities of the sound that is heard in
the brain. Sound waves enter the ear, and once the wavelengths reach the middle
ear, auditory structures convert these wavelengths into vibrations. The
vibrations are transferred into neural impulses, which are sent directly to the
brain. This process of detecting vibrations is referred to as mechanoreception.
The singing birds in the park emit wavelengths of very specific size and
frequency which are picked up by your ears, and you end up experiencing the
bird's song.
Touch
Our sense of touch is also facilitated by mechanoreception. Specially designed receptor cells under the skin are designed to sense the slightest amount of pressure. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 We also have thermoreceptor cells under our skin which are able to detect temperature related to touch and temperature and convert that information into information that the brain can use. Remember that warm spring day? Thanks to both of these types of receptors, we can feel the soft grass and the warmth of the sun simultaneously.
8. Muller-Lyre illusion
The Muller-Lyer illusion is a well-known optical illusion in
which two lines of the same length appear to be of different lengths. The
illusion was first created by a German psychologist named Franz Carl
Muller-Lyer in 1889.
In the top half of image above, which line appears the
longest? For most people, the line with the fins of the arrow protruding
outward (the center line) appears to be the longest, while the line with the
arrow fins pointing inwards appears shorter. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 While your eyes might tell you
that line in the middle is the longest, the shafts of both lines are exactly
the same length, as shown in the bottom half of the image. Like other optical
illusions, the Muller-Lyer illusion has become the subject of considerable
interest in psychology over the years. Different theories have emerged to explain
the phenomenon.
Other researchers contend that Gregory's explanation does
not sufficiently explain this illusion. For example, other versions of the
Muller-Lyer illusion utilize two circles at the end of the shaft. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 While there
are no depth cues, the illusion still occurs. It has also been demonstrated
that the illusion can even occur when viewing three-dimensional objects.
The Depth Cue
Explanation
Depth plays an important role in our ability to judge
distance. One explanation of the Muller-Lyer illusion is that our brains
perceive the depths of the two shafts based upon depth cues. When the fins are
pointing in toward the shaft of the line, we perceive it as sloping away much
like the corner of a building. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This depth cue leads us to see that line as further
away and therefore shorter.
When the fins are pointing outward away from the line, it
looks more like the corner of a room sloping toward the viewer. This depth cue
leads us to believe that this line is closer and therefore longer.
The Conflicting Cues
Explanation
An alternative explanation proposed by R. H. Day suggests
that the Muller-Lyer illusion occurs because of conflicting cues. Our ability
to perceive the length of the lines depends on the actual length of the line
itself and the overall length of the figure.3 Since the total length of one
figure is longer than the length of the lines themselves, it causes the line
with the outward-facing fins to be seen as longer.
Researchers from the University of London suggest that the
illusion demonstrates how the brain reflexively judges information about length
and size before anything else.4
"Many visual illusions might be so effective because
they tap into how the human brain reflexively processes information. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 If an
illusion can capture attention in this way, then this suggests that the brain
processes these visual clues rapidly and unconsciously. This also suggests that
perhaps optical illusions represent what our brains like to see,"
explained researcher Dr. Michael Proulx.
9. Projective techniques
Projective Techniques are indirect and unstructured
methods of investigation which have been developed by the psychologists and use
projection of respondents for inferring about underline motives, urges or
intentions which cannot be secure through direct questioning as the respondent
either resists to reveal them or is unable to figure out himself. These
techniques are useful in giving respondents opportunities to express their
attitudes without personal embarrassment. These techniques helps the
respondents to project his own attitude and feelings unconsciously on the
subject under study. Thus Projective Techniques play a important role in
motivational researches or in attitude surveys.
Important Projective
Techniques
1.
Word Association Test.
2.
Completion Test.
3.
Construction Techniques
4.
Expression Techniques
Word Association
Test: An individual is given a clue or hint and asked to respond to
the first thing that comes to mind. The association can take the shape of a
picture or a word. There can be many interpretations of the same thing. A list
of words is given and you don’t know in which word they are most interested.
The interviewer records the responses which reveal the inner feeling of the
respondents. The frequency with which any word is given a response and the
amount of time that elapses before the response is given are important for the
researcher. For eg: Out of 50 respondents 20 people associate the word “ Fair”
with “Complexion”.
Completion Test: In
this the respondents are asked to complete an incomplete sentence or story. The
completion will reflect their attitude and state of mind.
Construction Test: This
is more or less like completion test. They can give you a picture and you are
asked to write a story about it. The initial structure is limited and not
detailed like the completion test. For eg: 2 cartoons are given and a dialogue
is to written.
Expression Techniques: In this the people are asked to express the feeling or attitude of other people.
10. Superego
Superego, in the psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, the
latest developing of three agencies (with the id and ego) of the human
personality. The superego is the ethical component of the personality and
provides the moral standards by which the ego operates. The superego’s
criticisms, prohibitions, and inhibitions form a person’s conscience, and its
positive aspirations and ideals represent one’s idealized self-image, or “ego
ideal.”
The superego develops during the first five years of life in
response to parental punishment and approval. This development occurs as a
result of the child’s internalization of his parents’ moral standards, a
process greatly aided by a tendency to identify with the parents. The
developing superego absorbs the traditions of the family and the surrounding
society and serves to control aggressive or other socially unacceptable
impulses. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Violation of the superego’s standards results in feelings of guilt or
anxiety and a need to atone for one’s actions. The superego continues to
develop into young adulthood as a person encounters other admired role models
and copes with the rules and regulations of the larger society. See also
Oedipus complex.
11. Thurstone’s theory of intelligence
Louis Leon Thurstone proposed his multiple-factor theory of
intelligence in 1938. Before this theory came, the notion of the g-factor,
i.e., general intelligence, which had been proposed by a British Psychologist,
Charles Spearman, was more prevalent. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Thurstone brings the concept of multiple
factors associated with human intelligence instead of a single factor, i.e.,
general intelligence. He stated that every individual possesses different
levels of seven primary mental abilities, i.e., word fluency, verbal factor,
numerical factor, inductive reasoning, memory, spatial visualization, and
perceptual speed. We’ll discuss Thurstone’s theory and the seven primary mental
abilities in this article.
Louis Leon Thurstone was an American Psychologist, who was born on 29 May 1887 in Chicago, USA. Initially, he was interested in engineering and mathematics that inspired him to do an electrical engineering degree from Cornell University, New York. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 He worked for Thomas Edison as an assistant for a short period, and in 1912, he started teaching at the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. During his teaching period, he developed his interest in the psychology of learning. After completing his doctorate in psychology in 1917, he started working as the chairman of the psychology department at the Carnegie Institute of Technology. Later, he became a professor at the University of Chicago.BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Thurstone had a keen interest in understanding and explaining the various psychological phenomenon in a scientific manner that led him and his followers to establish the ‘The Psychometric Society’ (psychological measurement lab) in Chicago in 1935; this society promoted the idea of ‘Psychology as a Quantitative Rational Science.’ He is famous for his contribution to the factor analysis technique and development of psychometrics. Psychometrics involves the scientific measurement of various mental processes, and factor analysis is a statistical method used to find the correlation among the different variables. BPCC 131 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The factor analysis method was originally used by Charles Edward Spearman; Thurstone did further advancements in this method, which helped him establish various psychometric methods and develop his multi-factor theory of intelligence. He developed the ‘Primary Mental Ability Test’ (1938) that measures the various factors related to human intelligence. He published varieties of books and monographs, and some of them are ‘The Nature of Intelligence,’ ‘The Measurement of Attitude,’ ‘The vector of Mind,’ ‘Primary Mental Abilities,’ and ‘Multiple-factor Analysis.’ In 1952, Thurston shifted his Psychometrics lab of Chicago to the University of North Carolina, and he worked as a professor there until his death on 29 September 1955.
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