IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022
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BPAG 172
GOVERNANCE: ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
Programme: BAG/2021/2022
Course Code: BPAG 172
Max. Marks: 100
BPAG 172 Free Solved
Assignment
Assignment
A
Answer the following in about 500 words
each.
Q1. Discuss the governance
indicators across six dimensions.
The Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGI) are a long-standing research project to develop cross-country indicators of governance. The WGI consist of six composite indicators of broad dimensions of governance covering over 200 countries since 1996: Voice and Accountability, Political Stability and Absence of Violence/Terrorism, Government Effectiveness, Regulatory Quality, Rule of Law, and Control of Corruption. IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 These indicators are based on several hundred variables obtained from 31 different data sources, capturing governance perceptions as reported by survey respondents, nongovernmental organizations, commercial business information providers, and public sector organizations worldwide. This paper summarizes the methodology and key analytical issues relevant to the overall WGI project. The updated data for the six indicators, together with the underlying source data and the details of the 2010 update of the WGI, are not discussed in this paper but are available online at www.govindicators.org. IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 We also plan to release and document subsequent updates of the WGI purely online, with this paper serving as a guide to the overall methodological issues relevant to the WGI project and future updates. In the WGI we draw together data on perceptions of governance from a wide variety of sources, and organize them into six clusters corresponding to the six broad dimensions of governance listed above. For each of these clusters we then use a statistical methodology known as an Unobserved Components Model to
(i) standardize the data from these very diverse sources into
comparable units,
(ii)
Construct an
aggregate indicator of governance as a weighted average of the underlying
source variables.
(iii) Construct margins of error that reflect the unavoidable imprecision in measuring governance. We believe this to be a useful way of organizing and summarizing the very large and disparate set of individual perceptions-based indicators of governance that have become available since the late 1990s when we began this project. IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 Moreover, by constructing and reporting explicit margins of error for the aggregate indicators, we enable users to avoid over-interpreting small differences between countries and over time in the indicators that are unlikely to be statistically – or practically – significant This emphasis on explicit reporting of uncertainty about estimates of governance has been notably lacking in most other governance datasets. While the six aggregate WGI measures are a useful summary of the underlying source data, we recognize that for many purposes, the individual underlying data sources are also of interest for users of the WGI data. IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 Many of these indicators provide highly specific and disaggregated information about particular dimensions of governance that are of great independent interest. For this reason we make the underlying source data available together with the six aggregate indicators through the WGI website. The rest of this paper is organized as follows. In the next section we discuss the definition of governance that motivates the six broad indicators that we construct. Section 3 describes the source data on governance perceptions on which the WGI project is based. Section 4 provides details on the statistical methodology used to construct the aggregate indicators, and Section 5 offers a guide to interpreting the data.
1.
Voice and
Accountability (VA) – capturing perceptions of the extent to which a country's
citizens are able to participate in selecting their government, as well as
freedom of expression, freedom of association, and a free media.
2. Political Stability and Absence of Violence/Terrorism (PV) – capturing perceptions of the likelihood that the government will be destabilized or overthrown by unconstitutional or violent means, including politically-motivated violence and terrorism. IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 (b) The capacity of the government to effectively formulate and implement sound policies:
3.
Government Effectiveness (GE) –
capturing perceptions of the quality of public services, the quality of the
civil service and the degree of its independence from political pressures, the
quality of policy formulation and implementation, and the credibility of the
government's commitment to such policies.
4. Regulatory Quality (RQ) – capturing perceptions of the ability of the government to formulate and implement sound policies and regulations that permit and promote private sector development. (c) IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 The respect of citizens and the state for the institutions that govern economic and social interactions among them:
5.
Rule of Law (RL) –
capturing perceptions of the extent to which agents have confidence in and
abide by the rules of society, and in particular the quality of contract
enforcement, property rights, the police, and the courts, as well as the
likelihood of crime and violence
6.
Control of
Corruption (CC) – capturing perceptions of the extent to which public power is
exercised for private gain, including both petty and grand forms of corruption,
as well as "capture" of the state by elites and private interests.
Q2. Analyse through examples the stakeholders’
involvement in governance.
“A stakeholder in an organization is any group or
individual who can affect or is affected by the achievement of the
organization’s objectives” (Freeman, 1984). Stakeholders are individuals who
either care about or have a vested interest in a project or organization or any
government programmer. IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 They are the people who are actively involved with the
work of the projects or programmers or have something to either gain or lose as
a result of its implementation. For example, when the government or local
bodies take up a project to add lanes to a highway, motorists, local residents
and highway users are stakeholders who positively or negatively get affected
due to the implementation of the project. Among all, the residents of the area
who live near the highway may get affected during the implementation of the
project because of the construction, noise, dust pollution and increased
traffic. The new perspective of governance is changing in the 21st century with
the issues of neoliberal economic policy and globalization combined with other
challenges which include environmental degradation, migration, sustainable
development, grassroots development and all other governance related issues. IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 The socio- economic challenges and the governance issues of the 21st century
need to be addressed with the participation of all stakeholders. According to
Deetz and Kuhn (2007), traditional governance model provides decision making
prerogatives to the organizational leader. In the traditional model, pressure
groups predominantly act as representatives and attempt to gain political
mileage for the certain sections of the population. IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 Deetz and Kuhn further
state that unlike traditional model of governance, a stakeholder model of
governance provides necessary benefits to the large sections of the population
by ensuring their active participation in the process of governance. It also
has capacity to increase the visibility of participants in the organization. If
an organization takes certain decisions which affects certain sections of the
population, the stakeholder theory proposes to bring all affected population
into decision making process for ensuring justice to everyone. Now we shall
discuss what an organization is before we further discuss stakeholders
governance. IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 Organization is a social arrangement which pursues collective
goals, controls its own performance, and has a boundary separating it from its
environment. The word itself is derived from the Greek word organon, from the
better-known word ergon. There are various types of organizations which include
government, corporate organizations, nongovernmental organizations, media,
international organizations such as United Nations, World Bank, International
Monetary Fund (IMF), and so on. Apart from the above, it is observed that the
important contribution is being made by community based organisations (CBOs) at
the local level to the governance process. CBOs are membership or
non-membership based organisations, which predominantly, exist at the local
level. They discuss and solve the problems at their place of existence. We may
also consider resident welfare associations as CBOs in the urban areas. Now,
let us recapitulate as to ‘what is governance’? It is the process of
coordination among the various actors in an organisation and to steer the
structure towards achieving certain goals. IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 For example, government is a
structure. There are various actors in the government. It needs to be
coordinated amongst all of them for the successful implementation of its
policies and programmes with people as major stakeholders. The existing
research provides evidence that there is direct relationship between
socio-economic benefits and active participation of stakeholders. If the
stakeholders’ participation is limited, the effectiveness of the programme is
also limited. Another important aspect here is communication. In the
stakeholder’s governance, communication is a vital tool. IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 Communication
determines the success and viability of the stakeholder’s governance. Research
studies indicate that the existing standard corporate model of one way
communication has been less effective in stakeholder governance. Unlike
existing formal communication pattern, stakeholders express their experiences,
benefits and disadvantages of certain programmes in a free manner, through the
informal modes of communication. It is more about sharing their experiences in
the stakeholder governance. Here we imply communication as a dialogue process.
We all know how media as a stakeholder discharges this role in generating
opinions and creating an aware and informed citizenry.
Assignment B
Answer the following questions in about 250 words each.
Q3. Discuss the theories of
development.
Development theory is a collection of theories about how desirable change in society is best achieved. Such theories draw on a variety of social science disciplines and approaches. In this article, multiple theories are discussed, as are recent developments with regard to these theories. Depending on which theory that is being looked at, there are different explanations to the process of development and their inequalities. Lifespan development explores how we change and grow from conception to death. This field of psychology is studied by developmental psychologists. IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 They view development as a lifelong process that can be studied scientifically across three developmental domains: physical, cognitive development, and psychosocial. There are many theories regarding how babies and children grow and develop into happy, healthy adults. Sigmund Freud suggested that we pass through a series of psychosexual stages in which our energy is focused on certain erogenous zones on the body. Eric Erikson modified Freud’s ideas and suggested a theory of psychosocial development. IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 Erikson said that our social interactions and successful completion of social tasks shape our sense of self. Jean Piaget proposed a theory of cognitive development that explains how children think and reason as they move through various stages. Finally, Lawrence Kohlberg turned his attention to moral development. He said that we pass through three levels of moral thinking that build on our cognitive development. You’ll learn about each of these theories in this section. Developmental theories present systematic ways of thinking about how human beings grow from babies to adolescents to adults to elderly people, and the various changes they undergo as they make this passage. Different developmental theories describe different types of changes. Jean Piaget's influential theories describe how people's intellectual development evolves over time. IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 Lawrence Kolhberg's theories describe moral evolution over time as people grow, and Eric Erikson and Robert Kegan have created theories that describe how identity and the nature of the self change with increasing maturity. IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 We've described early human development in detail in our Child Development Topic Center , which you may wish to look at when you have a moment.
In general, developmental theories view development as progress from simple to more complex understandings of the self and the world over time. Progress may be continuous in nature, or occurring in stages, but the momentum is most always forward toward greater, more complex understandings. BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 For example, prior to achieving "object permanency", babies do not understand that objects (toys, people) continue to exist even when out of sight. Instead of looking for a toy now covered with a blanket, they instead quickly lose interest in the toy as though it never existed. As they grow, babies come to master the idea of object permanency, and thereafter will begin looking for objects hidden from their view. According to developmental theories, this sort of learning to see the world in increasingly complicated ways continues to occur throughout the lifespan. BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 Though progress towards development is most certainly happening all the time, the changes that occur are generally gradual in nature. It is only over long periods of time that clear progress from one state to another is apparent. For this reason, developmental theorists tend to view development in terms of stages that people pass through. Each stage is often marked by attainment of a milestone event (such as learning to have object permanence, to walk or talk, or to take responsibility for one's actions.
Q4. Examine the factors responsible for
changing role of bureaucracy.
Bureaucracy is a form of government
and organization which, as Max Weber suggests, should be in an ideal
organization structure. Bureaucracy is an effective form of management in the
organization's acquiring rationality, eliminating turmoil, and avoiding ambiguity
(Aydın, 2010). In general, bureaucracy is the process of organizing scattered
transactions and actions according to rational and objective rules (Başaran,
2000). BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 While bureaucracy shows its existence in many organizations, Bursalıoğlu
(2012) characterizes school as a
bureaucratic institution considering bureaucracy as one of its unique features.
The features of the bureaucracy structure in schools can be described as
follows: i) to establish division of labour according to competence in the sharing
of official duties (supports specialization); ii) teachers are responsible
towards school administrators or group leaders; iii) laws and regulations are
binding; iv) school staff demonstrate their impartiality and coherence, v) the
person to work in a specific position at school demonstrates their occupational
competence and professional qualification (based on expertise). Bureaucracy is
a sociological phenomenon developed to achieve desired results, and a project
that organizes human activities throughout the history of civilizations.
Schools, where we spend most of our life, are also one of the forms of
bureaucracy (Yücel, 1999). Those who oppose the bureaucratic nature of school
do so because bureaucracy constitutes an obstacle before their using it for
their own benefit (Bursalıoğlu, 2012). Bureaucracy functions to protect its own
structure. However, it may reveal some problems. The biggest problem for
managers is considered to be the supply of sources and managers' obligation to
account for to their superiors. In the context of communication, it is the
realization of inter-individual relations within the limits of hierarchy,
status and authority. Before deallng with the role of bureaucracy in policy
making, it is very essential to be clear about what is exactly the meaning of
'bureaucracy'. According to Max Weber, "Bureaucracy is universal social
phenomenon and the means of carrying community action to rationally ordered
societal action." In the words of Marshall E. BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 Dimock, "Bureaucracy is
the state of the society in which institutions overshadow individuals and
simple family relationships, stage of development In which divlsion of labour,
specialization, organlsation, hierarchy, planning and regimentation of large
groups of individuals either by voluntary or involuntary methods, are the order
of the day." Bureaucracy is said to be the product of ‘a large size of
organizations in public or private service. The bureaucratic administration
breaks the absolute power of elected leadership or monarchy due to its
systematised administration. As a system, lt has to practice autonomy and
independence in giving its opinion to political leaders and to
faithfully execute the formulated policies. Hans Rosenberg
has observed that "...an essential part of the present structure of
governance consists of its far-flung system of professionalized administration
and its hierarchy of appointed officials upon whom the society is thoroughly
dependent. Whether we live under the most has Role of Bureaucracy 6
totalitarian despotism or in the most liberal democracy, 'we are governed to a
considerable extent by a bureaucracy of some kind.
Q5. Write a note in brief on
the forms of governance.
Although the list is exhaustive and endless, let’s discuss a few important responsibilities of a government. A government must ensure the security of its people through the means of an effective legislation. A government must form and manage an efficient police force, a fair court justice system, and a robust defense force. IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 Next, a government must provide civic amenities and build infrastructure for the social welfare, health, and development of its people. In addition to providing amenities and infrastructure, a government must effectively manage the country’s economy. And this involves managing inflation, maintaining sufficient foreign reserves, and stimulating foreign investments. In a democracy, a country’s people are involved in choosing its leader or head. The people are involved in the process of forming a government. IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 They have the free will and right to vote for a party to come into power. The right to vote is not determined by wealth or class or race. In a democracy, there are different parties that have a manifesto or an idea about how a country should be governed. A democratic government is formed when a majority of people support a certain party as the ruling party or power. Within democracy again, there are several forms of democracies such as a republic, a constitutional monarchy, a presidential system, or a parliamentary system. A government must also take steps to protect the environment from further neglect. It should take steps to protect and clean its local and international waters, set up wildlife sanctuaries, and invest in renewable sources of energy and power.
Assignment C
|
Answer the
following questions in about 100 words each. |
|
Q6. Discuss the
conceptual framework of information and communication technology. |
Currently, the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) in education does not conclusively demonstrate signi fi cant effects on learning. However, not all ICT usage models are designed to affect student outcomes. Therefore, to accurately study the impact of ICT, the concept of an educational programme supported by ICT must first be defined. The authors propose the ICT for Education (ICT4E) programme, an evidencebased framework to determine a model ’ s ability to produce improvements before having to evaluate its results. IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 The framework has four components: implementation, intervention, transference and total cost. Based on an explicit definition of the outcomes pursued by a given programme, this framework supports the design of its activities to promote sustainable changes in pedagogical practices in schools and calculate the programme ’ s total cost. The authors illustrate this with a programme implemented in six countries. In Chile, the ICT4E programme forms part of the policy for educational technology, evaluating the effectiveness and scalability of such initiatives.
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Q7. State the key elements of citizen’s charter.
It has been recognized the world over that good governance
is essential for sustainable development, both economic and social. The three
essential aspects emphasized in good governance are transparency,
accountability and responsiveness of the administration. The Citizen’s Charters
initiative is a response to the quest for solving the problems which a citizen
encounters, day in and day out, while dealing with organizations providing
public services. The concept of Citizen’s Charter enshrines the trust between
the service provider and its users. IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 The concept was first articulated and
implemented in the United Kingdom by the Conservative Government of John Major
in 1991 as a national programme with a simple aim: to continuously improve the
quality of public services for the people of the country so that these services
respond to the needs and wishes of the users. The programme was re-launched in
1998 by the Labour Government of Tony Blair which rechristened it Services
First. The UK’s Citizen’s Charter initiative aroused considerable interest
around the world and several countries implemented similar programmes e.g.,
Australia (Service Charter, 1997), Belgium (Public Service Users’ Charter
1992), Canada (Service Standards Initiative, 1995), France (Service Charter,
1992), India (Citizen’s Charter, 1997), Jamaica (Citizen’s Charter 1994),
Malaysia (Client Charter, 1993), Portugal (The Quality Charter in Public
Services, 1993), and Spain(The Quality Observatory, 1992). Some of these
initiatives are very similar to the UK model, whereas others break new ground
by leaning on the service quality paradigm of the Total Quality Management
(TQM) movement. Some other initiatives are pitched somewhere in between. Even
in the UK, in the context of the Next Steps / Modernising Government Initiatives,
Citizen’s Charters have acquired a service quality face for delivery of public
services. The quality tools adopted for improving public services include the
Business Excellence Model, Investors in People, Charter Mark, ISO 9000 and Best
Value (Government of UK, 1999). IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 The Government of Malaysia issued Guidelines on
the Client’s Charter in 1993 to assist government agencies to prepare and
implement Client’s Charter, which is a written commitment by an agency to
deliver outputs or services according to specified standards of quality
(Government of Malaysia, 1998). A Best Client’s Charter Award was instituted in
1993. The Malaysian system of Client’s Charter closely follows the UK Model. A
distinction is made, however, between agency-wide and unit charters. The
concept of service recovery enjoins taking steps to restore the trust and
confidence of the client in a proactive manner when things go wrong.
Q8. What do you understand by
financial decentralization?
Fiscal decentralization involves shifting some responsibilities
for expenditures and/or revenues to lower levels of government. One important
factor in determining the type of fiscal decentralization is the extent to
which subnational entities are given autonomy to determine the allocation of
their expenditures. (The other important factor is their ability to raise
revenue.) This note outlines principles and best practice and highlights how
country specifics will ultimately be the best determinant of expenditure
assignments. It is important to clarify where local governments can determine
the allocation of expenditures themselves versus those where the center
mandates expenditures and local levels simply execute those expenditures. When
statistics on subnational finance are available (most notably in the IMF’s
Government Finance Statistics) these two types of expenditures are usually
aggregated and one figure is provided on "percentage of subnational
expenditures." Thus, analysts must be very careful when using this as in
indicator of local autonomy, as autonomy will not be enhanced unless the funds
are not tied by the center. (Of course, some countries do derive the benefits
of local expenditure autonomy as a result of local governments’ ability to
access the funds and circumvent the central mandates.Unitary and federal
governments provide different opportunities for fiscal decentralization. IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 Unitary countries do not have sub-national governments that are
constitutionally empowered to make decisions over a specified range of
government functions and services; rather, they have multiple subordinate
levels of the same government. Central, provincial, district). Federal
governments, on the other hand, have constitutionally protected sub-national
governments and thus, the possibilities for independent decision making are
clearly stronger under these systems. It is important to note that local
governments (as opposed to state or province) may not necessarily enjoy
constitutional protection under federal systems. In practice, however, the
extent and nature of decision-making power exercised by lower tiers varies
widely from country to country in both federal and unitary countries and may
change (in either direction) from time to time.
Q9. Explain sustainable development
goals.
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the
Global Goals, were adopted by the United Nations in 2015 as a universal call to
action to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure that by 2030 all people
enjoy peace and prosperity. The 17 SDGs
are integrated—they recognize that action in one area will affect outcomes in
others, and that development must balance social, economic and environmental
sustainability. IGNOU BPAG 172 Free Solved Assignment 2022 Countries have committed to prioritize progress for those
who're furthest behind. The SDGs are designed to end poverty, hunger, AIDS, and
discrimination against women and girls. The creativity, knowhow, technology and
financial resources from all of society is necessary to achieve the SDGs in
every context.
Q10. Bring out the challenges to inclusive and
participative governance.
Conventional wisdom assumes that participatory governance,
inclusive development and decentralization go together. International donors,
multilateral agencies, center left to left wing governments―either populists or
not― share this common assumption. Although it does not seems wise to assume
that all good things goes together, there are some basic features of
participation, inclusion and decentralization that gives plausibility to this
common understanding. On the one hand, participation would be recognized as an
instrument allowing the expression of voices that are not listened on
traditional circuits of political representation, and this expression makes
possible, in principle, that this voices are taken into account in policy
decision-making. On the other hand, decentralization would approach
decision-making to the eventually affected population, whether it is composed
by users, beneficiaries or collectivities. Moreover, when decentralization
includes the tax dimension, the availability of resources would increase the
capacity of local-level incumbents to take decisions about the allocation of
these resources, making the local level a potentially effective locusto be
targeted by formulation demands of civil society and local population.