IGNOU BPSC 131 Free Solved Assignment 2022
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BPSC 131
INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL THEORY
Programme: BAG/2021/2022
Course Code: BPSC 131
Max. Marks: 100
BPSC 131 Free Solved
Assignment
There are
three Sections in the Assignment. You have to answer all questions in the
Sections. Assignment – I
Answer the following in about
500 words each.
Q1. Write a note on what is politics.
It may be used positively in the context of a "political solution" which is compromising and nonviolent, or descriptively as "the art or science of government", but also often carries a negative connotation.[2] For example, abolitionist Wendell Phillips declared that "we do not play politics; ant slavery is no half-jest with us The concept has been defined in various ways, and different approaches have fundamentally differing views on whether it should be used extensively or limitedly, empirically or normatively, and on whether conflict or cooperation is more essential to it. A variety of methods are deployed in politics, which include promoting one's own political views among people, negotiation with other political subjects, making laws, and exercising force, including warfare against adversaries. Politics is exercised on a wide range of social levels, from clans and tribes of traditional societies, through modern local governments, companies and institutions up to sovereign states, to the international level. In modern nation states, people often form political parties to represent their ideas. Members of a party often agree to take the same position on many issues and agree to support the same changes to law and the same leaders. An election is usually a competition between different parties. A political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a society.
The history of political thought can be traced back to early antiquity, with seminal works such as Plato's Republic and Aristotle's Politics in the West, and Confucius's political manuscripts and Chanakya's Arthashastra in the East Public administration is the implementation of government policy and also an academic discipline that studies this implementation and prepares civil employees for working in the public service.As a "field of inquiry with a diverse scope" whose fundamental goal is to "advance management and policies so that government can function Some of the various definitions which have been offered for the term are: "the management of public programs"the "translation of politics into the reality that citizens see every day" and "the study of government decision making, the analysis of the policies themselves, the various inputs that have produced them, and the inputs necessary to produce alternative policies The word public administration is the combination of two words—public and administration. In every sphere of social, economic and political life there is administration which means that for the proper functioning of the organisation or institution it must be properly ruled or managed and from this concept emerges the idea of administration. Public administration is "centrally concerned with the organization of government policies and programs as well as the behavior of officials (usually non-elected) formally responsible for their The political system defines the process for making official government decisions. It is usually compared to the legal system, economic system, cultural system, and other social systems. According to David Easton, "A political system can be designated as the interactions through which values are authoritatively allocated for a society. Each political system is embedded in a society with its own political culture, and they in turn shape their societies through public policy.
The interactions between different political systems are the basis for global politics.conduct". Many non-elected public employees can be considered to be public administrators, including heads of city, county, regional, state and federal departments such as municipal budget directors, human resources (HR) administrators, city managers, census managers, state mental health directors, and cabinet secretaries. Public administrators are public employees working in public departments and agencies, at all levels of government. In the United States, civil employees and academics such as Woodrow Wilson promoted civil service reform in the 1880s, moving public administration into academia. However, "until the mid-20th century and the dissemination of the German sociologist Max Weber's theory of bureaucracy" there was not "much interest in a theory of public administration".The field is multidisciplinary in character; one of the various proposals for public administration's sub-fields sets out six pillars, including human resources, organizational theory, policy analysis, statistics, budgeting, and ethics
Q2. Examine the normative approach of political theory.
In the group process, students learn and practice
skills that can be applied in classrooms, at Normative Political Theory &
Philosophy interprets, critiques, and constructs philosophical conceptions and
arguments concerning morally appropriate and prudent standards and purposes for
political actors and regimes. Topics include historically influential theories,
the genealogy of political ideas, democratic theory, and contemporary theories
of legitimacy, identity, ethics, the good society, and social justice. Elaine
and Nathan are professors of political science at a university. They both focus
their studies on political theory, which is the study of the ideas and values
concerning concepts of the state, power, individuals, groups and the
relationship between them. Furthermore, political theory is not only concerned
with how these relationships work, but also how they ought to work.
Even though Elaine and Nathan both study political theory, they take
different approaches. Let's take a quick look at each Empirical Theory
Elaine focuses her studies and research on empirical political theory.
In the simplest terms, empirical political theory is focused on explaining
'what is' through observation. In this approach, scholars seek to generate a
hypothesis, which is a proposed explanation for some phenomena that can be
tested empirically. After formulating a hypothesis, a study will be designed to
test the hypothesis. Let's look at an example. Elaine is interested in the role
of money in modern Senate elections. She develops a hypothesis that candidates
who spend more money on their campaigns than their opponents will win. Elaine
then goes about designing a study to test her hypothesis by examining election
results and campaign finance reporting disclosures. Elaine must be careful to
control for other variables that may affect the result, such as incumbency, and
focus on states with a relatively equal balance of political party membership.
After collecting the data, she will determine through statistical analysis if
it tends to support or not support her hypothesis.
The Normative Approach is a value based approach to building
communities, based on the assumption that all people have a need to belong,
want to have a sense of purpose, and want to experience success. All NAFI Programs use the Normative Approach
to build pro-social communities, in which “treatment” and “education” are
linked through shared experience.
The Normative Approach is effective as a culture change model;
Every member of a normative community carries equal importance in
developing a set of norms for living for the community, and in taking
responsibility for living those norms and holding others accountable for doing
so. This gives every individual
ownership in the community.
Closing the gap between rules (what is supposed to happen) and norms
(what actually happens), eliminates confusion and contradiction, and gives
credibility to the structure. Using the group process as a means of
accountability for behaviors and productivity of individuals allows for vicarious
learning. This creates an environment in
which everyone is a teacher and a learner.
Maintaining a focus on the shared mission statement gives a common
purpose to all community activities, and depersonalizes feedback, creating an
environment that is safe, both physically and emotionally. Hierarchies are eliminated.
Individuals participating a Normative Community learn new ways of
negotiating the world. As a behavior
change system, the Normative Approach teaches students and staff;
To be mission driven. The
consistent focus on a mission statement as a guide to both community and
individual behaviors is internalized over time.
Having a personal mission and holding oneself accountable for living it,
helps individuals to continue moving forward on paths they set for themselves.
To recognize and adapt to social norms in different work, in social
situations, and in interpersonal encounters.
These include communication skills, problem solving, creative thinking,
positive risk taking, leadership skills, and reflective thinking. The ongoing process of reflection is internalized, affecting cognitive, social,
and emotional growth.
Assignment – II
Answer the following questions
in about 250 words each.
Q1. What are Isaiah
Berlin’s ‘Two concepts of Liberty’? Explain.
"liberty in the negative sense involves an answer to the question: 'What is the area within which the subject—a person or group of persons—is or should be left to do or be what he is able to do or be, without interference by other persons] For Berlin, negative liberty represents a different, and sometimes contradictory, understanding of the concept of liberty, which needs to be carefully examined. Its later proponents (such as Tocqueville, Constant, Montesquieu, John Locke, David Hume and John Stuart Mill,who accepted Chrysippus' understanding of self- determination)[8] insisted that constraint and discipline were the antithesis of liberty and so were (and are) less prone to confusing liberty and constraint in the manner of rationalists and the philosophical harbingers of totalitarianisThis concept of negative liberty, Berlin argued, constitutes an alternative, and sometimes even opposed, concept to positive liberty, and one often closer to the intuitive modern usage of the word. Berlin considered negative liberty one of the distinguishing concepts of modern liberalism and observed "The fathers of liberalism—Mill and Constant—want more than this minimum: they demand a maximum degree of non-interference compatible with the minimum demands of social life. It seems unlikely that this extreme demand for liberty has ever been made by any but a small minority of highly civilized and self-conscious human beings Born in Riga (now the capital of Latvia, then a part of the Russian Empire) in 1909, he moved to Petrograd, Russia, at the age of six, where he witnessed the revolutions of 1917. In 1921 his family moved to the UK, and he was educated at St Paul's School, London, and Corpus Christi College, Oxford.[5] In 1932, at the age of twenty-three, Berlin was elected to a prize fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford. In addition to his own prolific output, he translated works by Ivan Turgenev from Russian into English and, during World War II, worked for the British Diplomatic Service. From 1957 to 1967 he was Chichele Professor of Social and Political Theory at the University of Oxford. He was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1963 to 1964. In 1966, he played a critical role in creating Wolfson College, Oxford, and became its founding President. Berlin was appointed a CBE in 1946, knighted in 1957, and appointed to the Order of Merit in 1971. He was President of the British Academy from 1974 to 1978. He also received the 1979 Jerusalem Prize for his lifelong defence of civil liberties, and on 25 November 1994 he received the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws at the University of Toronto, for which occasion he prepared a "short credo" (as he called it in a letter to a friend), now known as "A Message to the Twenty-First Century", to be read on his behalf at the ceremony.
Q2.
Discuss some arguments against liberty.
The concept of liberty captures a relationship
between three terms: it refers to the freedom of an individual X, from an
obstacle A, to do B. In other words, Ms. X is not restrained by A from doing B,
or in the absence of restraint A, Ms. X is free to do B. Gerald MacCallum who
offered us this understanding of the meaning of freedom, argued that it was specious
to want to divide analysts of liberty into advocates of negative liberty or of
positive liberty, since all theorists of liberty used these three terms
(MacCallum, 1967). We feel, however, that conceptions of liberty can still be
differentiated by the contrasting emphasis they place on A or B. Negative
conceptions of liberty use B to denote an infinite set, (starting from the act
of doing nothing), whereas they use A for a much narrower set, sometimes
counting intentionally imposed physical barriers alone as restraints, and more
frequently allowing laws as well to be included in the set of restraints.
Positive liberty theorists do the opposite: they do not allow every action
under B - it is not freedom to sell oneself into slavery - whereas their set of
restraints is defined as much wider to include not only physical barriers and
laws but also incapacities, whether in the form of a lack of material or
psychic resources. Let us, before we look at the two specific conceptions of
liberty in more detail, make some general observations about the concept of
liberty.
Arguments for Liberty1 is a
collection of essays on libertarianism, with each author arguing from a
different ethical framework. One author employs utilitarianism, one employs
virtue ethics, one employs natural rights, and so on. The book’s conceit is
that regardless of one’s basic moral philosophy, the conclusion favors liberty.
The authors provide clear and
insightful explanations of the thinking of Aristotle, Thomas Hobbes, John Stuart Mill,
Immanuel Kant, Ayn Rand, John Rawls, Robert Nozick and others. Their writing is
clear and free of academic jargon. Arguments would make an excellent book of
supplemental readings for a course in political philosophy. Such a course could
use another supplement, consisting of readings of philosophers arguing for
nonlibertarian ideas. I will suggest a couple later in this essay.
Q3. Elaborate the concept of
social justice.
Social justice is justice in terms of the distribution of wealth, opportunities, and privileges within a society. In Western as well as in older Asian cultures, the concept of social justice has often referred to the process of ensuring that individuals fulfill their societal roles and receive what was their due from society. In the current movements for social justice, the emphasis has been on the breaking of barriers for social mobility, the creation of safety nets and economic justice. Social justice assigns rights and duties in the institutions of society, which enables people to receive the basic benefits and burdens of cooperation. The relevant institutions often include taxation, social insurance, public health, public school, public services, labor law and regulation of markets, to ensure fair distribution of wealth, and equal opportunity. Interpretations that relate justice to a reciprocal relationship to society are mediated by differences in cultural traditions, some of which emphasize the individual responsibility toward society and others the equilibrium between access to power and its responsible use.Hence, social justice is invoked today while reinterpreting historical figures such as Bartolomé de las Casas, in philosophical debates about differences among human beings, in efforts for gender, ethnic, and social equality, for advocating justice for migrants, prisoners, the environment, and the physically and developmentally disabled.
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The concept of social justice is a revolutionary concept
which provides meaning and significance to life and makes the rule of law
dynamic. When Indian society seeks to meet the challenge of socio-economic
inequality by its legislation and with the assistance of the rule of law, it
seeks to achieve economic justice without any violent conflict. The ideal of a
welfare state postulates unceasing pursuit of the doctrine of social justice.
That is the significance and importance of the concept of social justice in the
Indian context of today. Justice is the virtue we practice by giving people
what is due them. Therefore, there is a problem of assignability when we
consider an unjust social order: What is due from an individual beneficiary of
that order to an individual victim? That question is answered by the concept of
social justice: What all of us individually owe to each individual victim of
the institutions now in place is our best efforts to reform those institutions.
The first half of this paper analyzes the traditional arguments for and the
conservative arguments against social justice as the answer to this problem of
assignability. Within that framework, it highlights the need for combating and
remedying injustices in society even though different, unknown, or more
difficult problems may arise from doing so. This paper also describes Hayek’s
theory of social justice. The trouble with “social justice” begins with the
very meaning of the term. Hayek points out that whole books and treatises have
been written about social justice without ever offering a definition of it.
Assignment – III
Answer the following questions in about 100
words each.
Q1 Nature of Rights
Rights of Nature is a legal and jurisprudential
theory that describes inherent rights as associated with ecosystems and
species, similar to the concept of fundamental human rights. The rights of nature concept
challenges twentiethcentury laws as generally grounded in a flawed frame of
nature as "resource", to be owned, used, and degraded. Proponents
argue that laws grounded in rights of nature direct humanity to act
appropriately and in a way consistent with modern, system-based science, which
demonstrates that humans and the natural world are fundamentally
interconnected.
This school of
thought is underpinned by two basic lines of reasoning. First, since the
recognition of human rights is based in part on the philosophical belief that
those rights emanate from humanity's own existence, logically, so too do
inherent rights of the natural world arise from the natural world's own
existence. A second and more pragmatic argument asserts that the survival of
humans depends on healthy ecosystems, and so protection of nature's rights in
turn, advances human rights and well-being.
From a rights
of nature perspective, most environmental laws of the twentieth century are
based on an outmoded framework that considers nature to be composed of separate
and independent parts, rather than components of a larger whole. A more
significant criticism is that those laws tend to be subordinate to economic
interests, and aim at reacting to and just partially mitigating economicsdriven
degradation, rather than placing nature's right to thrive as the primary goal
of those laws. This critique of existing environmental laws is an important
component of tactics such as climate change litigation that seeks to force societal action to mitigate climate change.
Q2 Overview of Indian democracy
Indian
democracy calls into question many presumptions that theorists have held about
the historical evolution and comparative development of democracy. It is, for
instance, generally assumed that the historical conditions in which democracies
arise include industrial development, a reasonably cohesive and homogeneous
society, a strong middle class, and a civic culture. When India became
independent in 1947, none of these conditions obtained. Though the Indian
Constitution of 1950 made India a democratic republic with universal adult
franchise, the country’s deeply unequal society based on caste hierarchy, low
levels of economic development, and a large rural population mired in poverty
and illiteracy suggested that this was inhospitable soil for democracy to take
root. Nevertheless, over the last six decades and more, Indian democracy has
proved to be resilient and enduring (unlike its neighbors, which gained
independence at the same time). It has witnessed the holding of regular, free,
and fair elections in which the rural and unlettered poor actively participate,
as also social movements and a vibrant civil society that make demands on the
political system that political parties may not. Above all, the idea of
democracy has strikingly captured the popular imagination.
General
Overviews
At least three
types of literature provide a general overview of Indian democracy: Anthologies Textbooks, and volumes of Edited/Authored
Overviews that contain essays on selective but reasonably
wide-ranging themes in Indian democracy.
Q3
Gender and politics
Gender and
politics, also called gender in politics, is a field of study in political science and gender studies that aims to understand the relationship between peoples' genders and phenomena in politics. Researchers of gender and
politics study how peoples' political participation and experiences interact
with their gender identity, and how ideas of gender shape
political institutions and decision-making. Women's political participation in
the context of patriarchal political systems is a particular focus of study. Gender
and politics is an interdisciplinary field, drawing not just from political science and gender
studies but also related fields such as feminist political thought, and peoples'
gendered treatment is commonly seen as intersectionally inked to their entire social identity.
Q4
Communitarian perspective of citizenship
Communitarianism is a philosophy that emphasizes the connection between the individual and the community. Its overriding philosophy is based upon the belief that a person's social identity and personality are largely molded by community relationships, with a smaller degree of development being placed on individualism. Although the community might be a family, communitarianism usually is understood, in the wider, philosophical sense, as a collection of interactions, among a community of people in a given place (geographical location), or among a community who share an interest or who share a history. Communitarianism usually opposes extreme individualism and disagrees with extreme laissez-faire policies that neglect the stability of the overall community. Communitarianism combines support for liberal economic policies such as a mixed economy, and social conservatism. The term 'national ethos' refers to the particularistic values. Traditions. Identity and vision of the future (or 'destiny') of a given nation. 1 Nations are defined as communities invested in states. Communities are social collectivities whose members are tied to one another by bonds of affection and by at least a core of shared value5 (E-zine. 1996). The term is best contrasted v.ith the notion of national character. Which tends to imply that all the members of a given nation have the same basic psychological profile and the same behavioral traits. In Contrasts to this term. 'National ethos' merely suggests that the relevant coJ1ecr.ivily has the said attributes. But many members may not internalize them or vie\" them in a positive light the context of these deliberations are nations because despite strong arguments and major ctlorts to form more encompassing communities. Especially in Europe
Q5 Censorship
Censorship is the suppression of speech, public communication, or other information. This may be done on the basis that such material is considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or "inconvenient". Censorship can be conducted by governments,[5] private institutions and other controlling bodies. Governments and private organizations may engage in censorship. Other groups or institutions may propose and petition for censorship. When an individual such as an author or other creator engages in censorship of his or her own works or speech, it is referred to as self-censorship. General censorship occurs in a variety of different media, including speech, books, music, films, and other arts, the press, radio, television, and the Internet for a variety of claimed reasons including national security, to control obscenity, child pornography, and hate speech, to protect children or other vulnerable groups, to promote or restrict political or religious views, and to prevent slander and libel. Direct censorship may or may not be legal, depending on the type, location, and content. Many countries provide strong protections against censorship by law, but none of these protections are absolute and frequently a claim of necessity to balance conflicting rights is made, in order to determine what could and could not be censored. There are no laws against self-censorship.
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