MED 004 TOWARDS PARTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT Assignment
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1. How does PRA serve as the tools for participatory management? With an example of a successful participatory management show how are they used in the development of participatory projects. (10)
Using PRA Tools and Techniques for Evaluation People stopped
and stared. They watched us move down the street from small shop to small shop.
We looked at the shoes being made by a local cobbler, and some of us admired
handbags and costume jeweler. By the time we reached the end of the line of
shops, there was a crowd of at least 30 people — watching, waiting, and
wondering. We were a very unusual sight for the inhabitants of H.D.Kote – an
assembly of development workers from Zimbabwe, Kenya, South Africa, Indonesia,
Sri Lanka, England, the United States, and India. We sported different colors,
clothing, accents and languages. We had gathered in this remote village in
Southern India to learn more about Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) from a
local development organization called MYRADA. PRA theory is not much different
from World Neighbors philosophy of empowering” people to help themselves. PRA
stresses that outside organizations, as catalysts for this empowering process,
have to stop taking information from the community, analyzing the data, and
returning only to tell the community members what their problems are and how
they should solve them. PRA offers a basic theory of community development and
“bag” of possible tools to encourage and ensure participation by the
marginalized, “poorest-of-the-poor”, community members that the development
program staff wants to reach. Social mapping and wealth ranking (to name a
couple of tools) can help the community and the program leaders identify those
families who have the most need. Once they and their particular needs are
identified, the community, the program, and those individuals can work on
finding solutions. They can also raise the awareness of all community members
about the conditions of their neighbors
We saw how dynamic exercises like social mapping can be when
well-facilitated. Very little has been written to date about the use of PRA
tools and techniques to encourage participatory evaluation (and subsequent
action) of program interventions. As a group, we had the chance to try these
techniques out in an “impact evaluation” of a drinking water system in a small
Indian village called Maudlin. By the time we had spent two days in the
village, we discovered that the drinking water system was beneficial to some of
the villagers, but that it had failed to provide close, safe drinking water to
those who needed it the most – the poor or marginalized people in the village.
We used six main tools from the PRA bag: water system map, focus group
discussions, time allocation drawing, seasonality of diseases, individual
interviews, and an observation walk. Since we were focusing on evaluating the
water system, we tried to limit the amount of information in order to ensure
enough time for community participation. Our main objective for the time in the
village was to help the community and MYRADA evaluate the water supply system
installed by the community, MYRADA and the local Government. The first
afternoon we arrived at the village, we met members of various sangha’s
(community organizations).
2. Explain good governance along with its any six characteristics. (10)
Governance is a concept that has been around for years and
is commonly used by many people. There is almost no consensus on the official
definition of governance because its use often depends on the intended purpose,
the people involved, and the socio-political environment of the term. According
to the United Nations (UN), governance refers to the activities of all
political and administrative authorities to govern their country. Meanwhile, as
stated by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), governance is a concept in
which a country is managed, including economic, policy, and legal aspects. In
the 1990s, the World Bank became the first international institution to adopt
the concept of good governance into lending arrangements for developing
countries and introduce the idea to the general public. In its 1992 report
entitled “Governance and Development”, the notion of good governance was
written as the way in which power is used to regulate the economic and social
resources of a country for development. Now, the term good governance has often
been used by national and international organizations. Good governance aims to
minimize corruption, take into account the opinions of minorities, listen to
the voices of the oppressed people in the decisionmaking process, and respond
actively to the needs of the community now and in the future.
Characteristics of Good Governance
Participation All men and women should have a voice in
decision-making, either directly or through legitimate intermediate
institutions that represent their interests. Such broad participation is built
on freedom of association and speech, as well as capacities to participate
constructively.
Rule of law Legal frameworks should be fair and enforced
impartially, particularly the laws on human rights.
Transparency Transparency is built on the free flow of
information. Processes, institutions and information are directly accessible to
those concerned with them, and enough information is provided to understand and
monitor them.
Responsiveness Institutions and processes try to serve all
stakeholders.
Consensus orientation Good governance mediates differing
interests to reach a broad consensus on what is in the best interests of the
group and, where possible, on policies and procedures
Equity All men and women have opportunities to improve or
maintain their well-being
Effectiveness and efficiency Processes and institutions
produce results that meet needs while making the best use of resources.
Accountability Decision-makers in government, the private
sector and civil society organizations are accountable to the public, as well
as to institutional stakeholders. This accountability differs depending on the
organizations and whether the decision is internal or external to an
organization.
Strategic vision Leaders and the public have a broad and
long-term perspective on good governance and human development, along with a
sense of what is needed for such development. There is also an understanding of
the historical, cultural and social complexities in which that perspective is
grounded.
3. What are
the aims, mission and functions of SACEP? Give its organizational arrangement
also. (10)
Mission
To promote regional co-operation in South Asia in the field
of environment, both natural and human in the context of sustainable
development and on issues of economic and social development which also impinge
on the environment and vice versa; to support conservation and management of
natural resources of the region and to work closely with all national,
regional, and international institutions, governmental and non-governmental, as
well as experts and groups engaged in such co-operation and conservation
efforts. As set forth in the Colombo Declaration in 1982, the aims of SACEP
are: a) To promote and support the protection, management and enhancement of
the environment, both natural and human, of the countries of South Asia,
individually, collectively, and co-operatively; b) To make judicious use of the
resources of the environment towards removal of poverty, reduce socio-economic
disparity, improve the quality of life, and prosperity on a continuing basis;
c) Make the full use of the organizational arrangements and
facilities for cooperation under SACEP. The Mission of SACEP is to promote
regional cooperation in South Asia in the field of environment, in the context
of sustainable development and on issues of economic and social development
which also have tremendous impact on the environment and vice-versa, to support
conservation and management of natural resources of the region and work closely
with all national, regional, and international.
ORGANISATIONAL ARRANGEMENT OF SACEP In accordance with the Articles
of Association, the organizational arrangement of SACEP is made up of five sub
units:
• The Governing Council (GC)
• Consultative Committee (CC)
• National Focal Points (NFP)
• Subject Area Focal Points (SAFP) and
• The Secretariat.
The Governing Council (GC) The Governing Council is the main
review and deliberative body, responsible for determining the policy and
programmers of SACEP and it oversees these activities by meeting regularly to
review the ongoing programmers and to endorse new recommendations put forward
by the Secretariat. It consists of one representative from each member state
who will be of Ministerial rank. As a legal entity since 1982, SACEP held eight
GC Meetings. The governing council of SACEP has recently approved biennium (2004-2005)
and quantum (2004-2008) programmers. Their implementation will give new impetus
to the efforts of SACEP in the region.
The Consultative Committee (CC) The Consultative Committee
comprising of the representatives of the diplomatic missions in Colombo and the
Secretary of Ministry of Forestry and Environment of Sri Lanka is responsible
for facilitating the implementation of policies, strategies and programmers
approved by the SACEP’s Governing Council. CC is also expected to provide
guidance to the secretariat in the planning, implementation and monitoring of
programmers and projects. The Consultative Committee meets regularly to provide
guidance to the Secretariat in its activities and up to May 2001, 79
Consultative Committee Meetings have been held.
4. With the help of a successful example of a women’s movement in protecting the environment discuss the role of women in environment and development. (10)
A lot of studies on women and environment have shown that
women are significant actors in natural resource management and they are major
contributors to environmental rehabilitation and conservation. In addressing
some key environmental problems, women play a dominant role.
Women, through their roles as farmers and as collectors of
water and firewood, have a close connection with their local environment and
often suffer most directly from environmental problems. Women’s direct contact
with environment has produced them deep- knowledge about the environment. Thus,
women have served as agriculturalists, water resource manager, and traditional
scientists, among others. Women are not only knowledgeable about the
environment, but they are also protective and caring.
Role of Women in
Conservation of Environment
More than 70% of the Indian population is rural based.
Biomass plays a crucial role in meeting daily survival needs of the vast
majority of the rural households. Water is essential for survival and its
availability is related to biomass. The biomass-based subsistence economy is
mostly non-monetized. Production and processing of biomass agriculture,
forestry, and minor forest produce and village crafts based on biomass as raw
materials are also the biggest sources of employment. Development imperatives
have inevitably led to some destruction of the biomass through deforestation
and environmental degradation. Traditionally, women have been responsible for
subsistence and survival for water, food, fuel, fodder and habitat, though they
rarely get the credit for nurturing these life support systems. Added to these
environmental destruction, exacerbates women's problems in a way very difficult
from that of men. The challenge is to reestablish the symbiosis between
communities, women and natural resources and reverse the trend of the negative
impact of existing developmental paradigms. Women have always been the
principal conservers of bio-diversity. Even today they perform duties such as
seed selection, multiplication and conservation. The on farm conservation
traditions of rural and tribal women, with reference to agro-biodiversity are
well known.
5. In field
practice, what are the common and serious errors of practice and ethics? (10)
Dominating Dominant and superior behavior is the most
widespread error. We start with unavoidable remarks and signals, regarding
color, sex, language, accent and age that complicate the action. Dominant
behavior includes verbal, through lecturing, interrupting, criticizing,
contradicting, preaching, pontificating and putting forward one’s own ideas,
telling lowers what they ought to think, and overbearing; and nonverbally,
through dress, body language, facial expressions. Dominant and superior
behavior damages participatory processes.
Rushing The work ‘rapid’ may have been needed in the late
1970s and early 1980s to offset the long-drawn-out learning of traditional
social anthropology and counter that of the large-scale questionnaire. RRA came
to be seen as a short cut. But by the late 1980s rapid has become a liability.
In practice, PRA facilitators often, take too little time; they fail to explain
who they are, why they have come, what they can do, and what they cannot do;
they are in a hurry to get on with the methods, not taking time to earn trust
and gain rapport.
Routines and ruts Practical Action Repetition breeds regular
habits. There are many ways the local people can map models, do transects,
diagram, rank, and score. But rigidity easily sets in, with the idea that there
is only one right way. PRA facilitators in any organization, or even region,
have shown signs of slopping into unvarying standard practices, overlooking
other options and missing the creativity of inventive interaction. Gender and
upper-to-upper bias the community members who often interact with visitors are
usually men. Under the pressure of time, and for convenience, it is easier to
encounter and consult them, or only a few others. Unless carefully offset, the
familiar bias to elite in, will manifest itself. If it is offset by a
generalized and populist concern and gender-blindness and the neglect of women
and girls. Differences between gender, groups, ages and occupations are easily
overlooked. Those left out are the women, the poor, and children, those of
inferior status, the marginal, the destitute, the disabled and the refugees.
Taking without giving PRA Methods have frequently been used
for ‘extractive’ research. Outsiders can often induce local people to give up
time to processes. The lower, the analysts feel, may enjoy and be empowered by
discovering their own abilities and knowledge. But as with all research
involving local people, there are ethical questions about unequal relationship
and the cost of people’s time.
6. What are the different ways of downstream participation within an organisation? Compare it with the ‘upstreaming’ referred by UNDP. (10)
As a business owner or operations manager responsible for
production, understanding the supply chain is essential to the success of your
business. Any obstacle or impediment to the smooth flow of production can mean
thousands of dollars lost and problems with the clients who depend on the
delivery of your goods.
Upstream Production
Elements
Using the metaphor of a river, upstream production refers to
all the activities needed to gather the materials required to create a product.
The upstream stage of the production process involves searching for and
extracting raw materials. The upstream part of the production process does not
do anything with the material itself, such as processing the material. This
part of the process simply finds and extracts the raw material.
Downstream Production
Elements
In contrast, the downstream production process involves
processing the materials collected during the upstream stage into a finished
product. The downstream stage further includes the actual sale of that product
to other businesses, governments or private individuals. The type of end user
will vary depending on the finished product. Regardless of the industry
involved, the downstream process has direct contact with customers through the
finished product. The downstream process often includes elements such as
distribution, wholesaling and retailing, all of which are involved in ensuring
timely delivery to clients. Customer service is also part of the downstream
process because it is the final bridge between the product and the end user.
Inefficient customer service can negatively impact the sale of the final
product.
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Integration of
Upstream and Downstream Process
In some instances, a company may find it more efficient and
cost-effective to combine the downstream and upstream process by controlling
all aspects of production. This is known as vertical integration because one
management team at one location supervises the upstream and downstream aspects
of production. For example, in the petroleum industry, one company could own a
refinery to mine for raw materials and a processing facility to refine the
materials and turn them into petroleum. That company would also own the
vehicles necessary to deliver the petroleum to various clients that depend on
timely delivery of petroleum for their businesses.
7. Describe how the model “Reversals in Learning” help farmers in sustainable and equitable development. (10)
REVERSALS IN LEARNING
Putting the last first means reversals in learning. The
objectives of the rural developers include ‘We must educate the farmers’ and
“We must uplift the rural poor’. Outsiders have first to learn from farmers and
from the rural poor. But many outsiders are hindered from such learning by
their educational attainment, urban status, and roles as bearers and dispensers
of modern knowledge. The staff working in rural areas distance themselves from
rural people, showing their separate style and standing through clothing,
shoes, vehicle, office briefcase, documents, and manner and speech. Hierarchy,
authority and superiority prevent the learning ‘from below’. Knowledge of one
sort perpetuates ignorance of another. Conventional learning through formal schooling,
university courses, and staff training can contribute to these reversals
through changes in syllabus. One example is to illuminate the problems and
rationality of small farmers through insights. There are two methods, which
deserve to be developed and included in courses and training. The first of
these is learning directly from rural people, trying to understand their
knowledge systems and eliciting their technical knowledge. This is still rare
as a part of education and training. The second is trying to experience the
world as poor and weak person. The problem here is to enable professionals to
step over and see and feel the world from the other end. The humanistic
psychotherapies may have methods to offer for this, but their application to
the training of rural development professionals has so far been little.
Sitting, Asking and
Listening
Sitting, asking, and listening are as much an attitude and a
method. Sitting implies lack of hurry, patience, and humility; asking implies
that the outsider is the student; and listening implies respect and learning.
Many of the best insights come this way. Relaxed discussions open up the
unexpected. The pooling of knowledge and mutual stimulation of a small casual
group can be an excellent source of insight. The composition of a group can
also be designed for a purpose. It is not only the outsider who holds
initiative or who gains, but all who take part can influence the direction of
the discussion, and be absorbed in learning. Evening meetings may be ideal, going
on into the night, when the outsider’s presence is less obtrusive and distorted
responses less likely.
8. What is participatory forestry? Briefly discuss JFM in India and explain how participatory management can affect the life of people residing at the periphery of forest area. (10)
Forest Management
under British Rule
Natural resources have always been an integral part of the
Indian economy and culture and are held in high esteem. Ancient religious,
political and literary writings are testament to the fact that people have
historically been considered an integral part of nature and not superior to it.
However, it is dicot to generalize about historical forest management practices
in India given the diversity of culture, forest types and administrative
systems found in deferent parts of the country; indeed natural resources were
formerly managed by princely states under deferent land tenure systems.
However, a great deal of documentation regarding forest management regimes
under the British administration is available ; in this section, discussion is
confined to the colonial approach to forest management and its policies
concerning people dependent on forests. It is well known that many of the
forests in India have, at deferent points in the nation’s history, been managed
under a set of rules and regulations developed by deferent communities.
Genesis of Joint Forest Management Continuous deforestation
and the degradation of forests leading to a decline in forest cover have long
been sources of concern for policy makers in India. Indeed, had there not been
such large-scale deforestation and forest degradation in India, it is unlikely
that any policy maker would have given serious thought to the ‘participatory
forest management’ model. The need of the hour and the backlash of policy
failures have led to the emergence of a new institution and rationale for the
origin of a ‘participatory forest management’ model within the Indian forestry
sector. This section discusses why the government commenced participatory
forest management in India
The Arabia
experiments in JFM
The relevance of a ‘give and take’ principle between the FD
and the community surfaced in the early a group of FD personnel realized the
importance of peoples’ participation in regeneration of degraded Sal (Shore
Robusta) forests in Arabia Range of Kidnaper district in the state of West
Bengal. This forest rejuvenation strategy was started as an experiment and later
on replicated on a large scale first in this state followed by its adoption in
deferent parts of country. The West Bengal Forest Department issued the first
government order in +323 to involve village communities in forest protection
with provision to give the people, / per cent of the revenue earned on timber
harvested from the protected forest. This successful experiment led to the
development of a new forest management strategy known as ‘Joint Forest
Management’ (JFM).
9. How can
the threats to mangroves in India be tackled with the help of certain measures?
Discuss. (10)
Mangrove forests are amazing ecosystems that grow along
tropical coasts, where they thrive in saltwater and tidal conditions. Mangrove
ecosystems are some of the most productive and biologically diverse ecosystems
on the planet: They serve as important habitats for fish, sharks, manatees,
crabs and other important species; provide food, jobs and other resources to
communities around the world; and protect some of the most vulnerable coastal
communities from the devastating impacts of climate change. Lastly, although
mangrove forests cover just 0.1 percent of our planet’s land surface, they
store more carbon than any other type of forest and are therefore an important
part of the solution to climate change. Approximately 75 percent of the world’s
mangrove forests are found in just 15 countries. Indonesia, a country of 17,000
tropical islands, has by far the largest mangrove forest cover, followed by
Brazil, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea and Australia. Despite their wide-ranging
benefits and importance, mangroves are being destroyed and degraded at an
alarming rate. Around the tropics, mangrove forests are being cleared for
cleared for aquaculture (fish and shrimp ponds) and other agriculture as well
as coastal urban development along the coasts. They also suffer from land based
pollution and from impacts of rapid sea-level rise.
Unsustainable aquaculture is the largest and most pressing
threat to mangrove ecosystems worldwide with increasing rates of pond
development in Asia and South America. For example, while Indonesia today is
home to 22 percent of the world’s mangroves, in the last 30 years, Indonesia
has lost 40 percent of its mangroves, mainly as a result of shrimp and fish
ponds. Recently, palm oil plantations have also been an additional pressure on
Indonesian mangroves.
10. Discuss the ways in which irrigation can impact on poverty. How would PIM help in reducing poverty related to irrigation?
Poverty reduction is now one of the main goals of
development yet progress against poverty stalled in many countries during the
late 1990s and early 2000s. Of the 1.2 billion people defined as dollar-poor
(i.e. with a per capita household income or consumption level below US$1-a-day
in 1985 PPP), three-quarters live in rural areas. Reviving the fight against
poverty requires action on many fronts (see IFAD, 2001), too numerous to
address in one paper, but a review of the evidence of past poverty reductions suggest
that one important weapon is investment in agriculture research and technology.
This paper focuses on one aspect of agricultural technology: irrigation. We
justify our choice quite simply. There are huge regional differences in the
proportion of cropland that is irrigated and these coincide with successes or
failures in poverty reduction (see table 1). In Africa only around 3% of
cropland is irrigated and the region has experienced very little reduction in
poverty in the 1990s (SubSaharan Africa had an estimated poverty headcount of
47.7% in 1990 and 46.3% in 1998 (World Bank, 2000)). In contrast, those regions
that have the greatest proportion of cultivated area irrigated (namely East
Asia and Pacific and North Africa and Middle East) have experienced the
greatest poverty reduction. In addition, 35- 40% of cropland in Asia is
irrigated and poverty reduction in the 1970s, the period immediately following
the Green Revolution in which much initial investment in irrigation was made,
was substantial.
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