MED 005
INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT: RURAL AND URBAN
Programme: MA/2021/2022
Course Code: MED 005
Max. Marks: 100
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1.
Elaborate on the constraints on policy making.
Indian policy-makers resisted
external pressure to liberalise imports and capital flows for four decades. As
a reaction to serious macro-economic imbalances in 1989-91, however, major
policy changes were introduced. Indian industrialists initially endorsed the
new policies, but by the mid-1990s many felt that liberalisation had gone too
far and was carried out too fast. With the unsatisfactory progress of Indian
industry achieved by the late 1990s domestic opposition strengthened. After
1998 this prompted the government to adopt more cautious policies that were
also aimed at delaying and diluting the impact of the WTO membership. At a
higher level of abstraction the analyses indicate that the policy options
available to the Indian state have been narrowed since the late 1980s, yet they
also show that the government has the capability of modifying external
influences. Much is still needed, though, in terms of increasing the capacity
to manage both the domestic economy and its further integration into the global
economy in accordance with national interests and priorities.
Types of Policy Constraints
The following bullet points contain
several examples of the types of policy constraints:
Break rule. Employees are allowed a
specific amount of rest time away from their workstations, during which time
the machines remain idle.
Cost reduction rule. Costs are to
be reduced in all parts of the production process, which can negatively impact
the ability of a company to support its constrained resource. Instead, more cash
should be spent to ensure that the bottleneck operation is fully supported at
all times.
Discounted cash flow analysis.
Fixed assets are only purchased based on their associated discounted cash
flows, which ignores their impact on throughput. A more throughput-focused
analysis would likely result in fewer fixed asset investments.
Minimum production run. All
production runs must generate a certain minimum number of units, which
supposedly justifies the equipment setup cost. In reality, a larger production run
just robs the next job in line of valuable machine time, and may also create
excess inventory.
Overtime rule. Overtime may not be
allowed, in which case there is no one to operate the bottleneck operation
after regular work hours or during breaks, which halts production.
Production line balance rule. The
industrial engineering staff attempts to convert the production process into a
production line, where capacity levels are just enough in all areas to match
production requirements. This policy falls apart when there is a production
snafu, which reduces the input to the constrained resource and causes total
throughput from the entire process to decline.
Resource maximization rule. All
phases of the production facility are to be operated at their maximum capacity
levels, which results in excess amounts of inventory being generated. Instead,
all workstations should operate at whatever level is needed to support the
constrained resource, and no more.
Many of the preceding policy
constraints were originally instituted to optimize a specific issue, but
without taking into consideration the impact of the throughput of the entire
system. Thus, a rule to balance the production line will reduce the amount of
capacity needed, but will inevitably result in a throughput reduction when the
lack of excess capacity starves the bottleneck operation of materials to
process.
Changing a Policy Constraint
It would initially appear easy
enough to change a policy constraint and experience an immediate increase in
throughput. However, these changes can be surprisingly difficult, since
employees are accustomed to using the existing policies. Consequently, the
alteration of a policy constraint can encompass employee relations issues,
added training, and changes to supporting procedures.
Despite the work involved to alter
a policy constraint, there can be a considerable monetary payoff associated
with doing so. Consequently, there should be an ongoing effort to spot and
correct issues related to policy constraints.
2.
Discuss the role of technology in making a sustainable future possible.
Sustainability is no longer just a
buzzword, but an environmental, economic and social driver that’s changing our
day-to-day lives in almost every way imaginable. This is obvious throughout the
business community, in which committing to sustainable practices is no longer a
“nice to have” but a “must do” as the negative impacts of climate change become
more obvious and ominous, with the potential to alter everything from supply
chains to profitability.
Businesses in industrial sectors
like manufacturing, transportation, agriculture and construction — industries
that define where we work and play, what we eat and how goods and services are
transported — are heeding the call. Although industrial businesses play a major
role in our lives, their adverse environmental impact is substantial. To truly
minimize the harmful impacts that result from them, we must have a solid
understanding of the scope of the problem at hand. Although this can be
difficult to quantify, understanding these baselines is critical for new goals
to be established, let alone reached or exceeded.
Although the solution to this
global problem is complex, multifaceted and will unfold for generations to
come, what’s certain is that technology will play a pivotal role. Although it’s
not a panacea, technology has the power to increase productivity, efficiency
and cost savings, reduce product waste, chemicals and resources and measure,
analyze and track progress, all of which can help minimize the impact on the
environment.
Below is a broad look at three
major industries that I’ve had significant experience with. For each, I’ve
provided a snapshot of some of their environmental impacts and how technology
is helping them find a more sustainable way forward.
Energy
Sustainability depends on the
evolution of energy technologies. In the short term, dependence on fossil fuels
is unavoidable. Ultimately, however, the world will need to reduce use of
fossil fuels. Technnical efforts must be directed to increasing the efficiency
of energy supply and energy use, and to using fossil fuels in a less-polluting
manner. Natural gas, which produces fewer pollutants than either oil or coal,
is in abundant supply and can play an important role in the transition to an
economy much less dependent on fossil fuels.
Increased energy efficiency in
transportation systems will be of central importance throughout the world.
Underway in many countries is the development of improved fuel-efficient
automobiles and integrated urban mass transit arrangements. Important
developments in energy storage and propulsion, such as electric, fuel-cell and
hydrogen systems, are also in progress.
Public Infrastructure
Public infrastructures are
essential to the efficient functioning of society and its ability to achieve
sustainable development. These include water resource and supply systems, power
systems, bridges, roads, as well as communications and transportation
facilities. To a large extent, the technologies are well developed. The
essential challenge lies in the diffusion and use of such technologies to
developing nations, where they are most needed.
Water
Water treatment and re-use will
have a decisive role in sustainable development in the public, industrial, and
agricultural sectors. In the public sector, securing public health will remain
the basic feature of urban water systems; water transportation and treatment
3.
Explain cost-benefit analysis with suitable examples.
Cost benefit analysis, CBA, benefit
cost analysis or if one loves hyphens (or incorrect depending on your
perspective) cost-benefit analysis / benefit-cost analysis. All
effectively mean the same thing - how much the benefits of a project investment
outweigh the costs.
CBA was originally pioneered by
Jules Dupuit in 1848 which (according to Wikipedia) focused on the “the
social profitability of a project like the construction of a road or bridge”.
What was revolutionary about the early idea (and the reason why it
persists today almost 200 years later) was to make something that was difficult
to measure (social profitability or the benefit to a society in the initial
case) quantifiable. Ongoing use by governments has continually
enforced CBA as an optimal way to evaluate whether a project is worth doing or
an investment is worth making.
In project management, benefits can
come in many forms. The formula for cost benefit analysis will only work
effectively if the units for benefits are the same as cost i.e. in monetary
terms.
With certain projects this might
prove tricky such as regulatory or compliance projects however one way to
potentially address this is to look at compliance costs as a negative
benefit which is “ the undesirable effect of a decision or action (or the
failure to decide or act on it” such as the effect of failing to be compliant
will equal $X fines.
The output of cost benefit analysis
will show the net benefit (benefits minus cost) of a project decision.
For example:
Project A: Build a new
product will cost 100,000 with expected sales of 100,000 per unit (unit price =
2). The sales of benefits therefore are 200,000. The simple calculation
for CBA for this project is 200,000 monetary benefit minus 100,000 cost
equals a net benefit of 100,000.
Project B: Enhance the sales portal
to position products in a simplified way, add a shopping basket and add a ‘keep
shopping feature’ when checking out to allow multiple products in one purchase.
The cost is 20,000 with expected increases of sales equal to 200,000 of
revenue. The simple calculation for CBA for this project is 200,000
monetary benefit minus 20,000 cost equals a net benefit of 180,000.
Based on comparison of these two
metrics, a project investment board or stakeholder can easily quantify the best
use of investment dollars for the greatest return.
4.
Describe the role of individual in environment protection.
There are actions everyday people
can take to protect the environment:
First, we can recycle, reuse, and
compost. Recycling involves cutting down on waste and energy consumption by
turning used items such as plastic bottles into new items. Reusing involves
cutting down on waste by reusing items such as grocery bags. Composting
involving using food waste to help create nutrient-rich soil rather than
landfill waste. The average American creates 4.3 pounds of waste every day.
Much of that waste ends up in landfills, where it produces greenhouse gases
that make climate change worse. Some of it ends up in the ocean, where it kills
marine life. And, creating new products uses up a lot of energy. Yet, almost
all of our waste can be recycled, reused, or composted.
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Transport conservation is another
thing we can do since one of the biggest sources of greenhouses gases is
transportation. Make better transport choices by choosing the least damaging
option. Generally speaking, driving is more efficient than flying. Riding a
bike is always better than driving. Take a train, tram, or bus whenever one is
available. Choose housing near to where you go to school or work, and choose an
efficient car. All of these things can reduce your impact on the environment.
Another way you can help the
environment is to conserve energy. Switch things off when you're not using
them, use less air conditioning (or use fans), dry clothes on a clothesline,
switch to energy saving light bulbs (LED bulbs are the best!), turn your
refrigerator down, close air conditioning vents when you're not in the room,
wear more layers instead of setting the heating too high, and turn everything
off when not at home. You can make the biggest difference by turning off your
a/c and turning down your heat. All these things help protect the environment
though, and they save you money!
You can also choose to buy local.
Local food is better for the environment because of transportation pollution.
The fewer miles the food has to travel, the smaller the pollution toll. You can
buy local food at specialty stores, go to a local farmer's market, or even grow
your own food in a garden! Also, it helps to make as much as possible from
scratch, instead of buying packaged goods. You can also cut down on meat:
vegetables take far less energy to produce than meat.
The fundamental duties enshrined in
our constitution impose duty on individuals to protect environment in order to
provide each and every human a clean environment and a life with dignity and
harmony. Article 51A (g) states that the fundamental duty of every Indian
citizen is to protect & improve the natural environment including forest,
lakes, rivers & wildlife & to have compassion for living creatures”.
Some of our wastes can be diluted, decomposed and recycled by natural processes
indefinitely as long as these processes are not overloaded. Natural processes
also provide services of flood prevention, erosion control at no costs at all.
We must therefore learn to value these resources and use them sustainably. By
teaching our friends and families that the physical environment is fragile we
can begin fixing the problems that threaten it. Only environmental
consciousness and awareness make people realize that our actions help in
restoring the damages caused by us.
Every year the quality of
environment is deteriorating instead of improving. But the good news is that
there is a lot we can still do as individuals to change this narrative. In
order to tackle the menace of these growing environmental problems, urgent
steps should be taken not only at global or country level, but also at local or
individual level. In fact, the role of individuals in prevention of
environmental problems is of critical importance, because it is the individuals
that make a community or country. Effort by each individual at his or her level
can have a significant effect on global level. It has been aptly said “charity
begins at home”. Environment Conscious and inspired individuals are strongest
tool to tackle environmental problems at local levels. This is because an
individual can tackle environmental problems more effectively as he/she is more
familiar with these problems persisting at local level and he himself/herself
deals with them in his/her day to day life. It is better and more viable to
prevent environmental related problems by educating individuals. Individuals
should encourage others to modify their lifestyle and living habits if that are
not healthy for environment.
5. Discuss the integrated management
practices to manage water resources effectively.
Integrated Water Resources
Management (IWRM) has been defined by the Technical Committee of
the Global Water Partnership (GWP) as "a process which promotes
the coordinated development and management of water, land and related
resources, in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an
equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital
ecosystems."
IWRM is based on the three
principles: social equity, economic efficiency and
environmental sustainability. Considering these principles means answering
the following questions:
- How will my decision/ action affect access for other users to water or the
benefits from its use?
- Will my decision/ action result
in the ‘most efficient use of the available financial & water
resources?
- How will my decision/ action
affect the functioning of natural systems?
Social equity means ensuring
equal access for all users (particularly marginalised and poorer user groups)
to an adequate quantity and quality of water necessary to sustain human well
being. The right of all users to the benefits gained from the use of water also
needs to be considered when making water allocations. Benefits may include
enjoyment of resources through recreational use or the financial benefits
generated from the use of water for economic purposes.
Economic Efficiency means
bringing the greatest benefit to the greatest number of users possible with the
available financial and water resources. This requires that the most
economically efficient option is selected. The economic value is not only about
price – it should consider current and future social and environmental costs
and benefits.
Ecological
Sustainability requires that aquatic ecosystems are acknowledged as users
and that adequate allocation is made to sustain their natural functioning.
Achieving this criterion also requires that land uses and developments that
negatively impact these systems are avoided or limited.
Operationally, IWRM approaches
involve applying knowledge from various disciplines as well as the insights
from diverse stakeholders to devise and implement efficient, equitable and
sustainable solutions to water and development problems. As such, IWRM is a
comprehensive, participatory planning and implementation tool for managing and
developing water resources in a way that balances social and economic
needs, and that ensures the protection of ecosystems for future generations.
Water’s many different uses—for agriculture, for healthy ecosystems, for people
and livelihoods—demands coordinated action. An IWRM approach is an open,
flexible process, bringing together decision-makers across the various sectors
that impact water resources, and bringing all stakeholders to the table to
set policy and make sound, balanced decisions in response to specific water
challenges faced.
It has been agreed to consider
water as an 'finite and economic commodity taking into account of affordability
and equity criteria', in order to emphasize on its scarcity in the Dublin
Statement:
Fresh water is a finite and
vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, development and the environment.
Water development and management
should be based on a participatory approach, involving users, planners and
policy makers at all levels.
IWRM aims to create sustainable
water security within the present constraints and to improve the conditions in
the catchment basin. Some important conditions for implementing IWRM
are presented below (Source: UN World Water Development Report 3)
Political will and
commitment: Political will at all levels can help unite all stakeholders
and move the process forward. It is especially needed if the resulting
plan or arrangement would create or require changes in legal and
institutional structures, or if controversies and conflicts among stakeholders
exist. Access to actors outside the water box is essential to move
political will, gain sectoral support and ease public pressure for IWRM
implementation.
Basin management plan and clear
vision: Water resources development coordinated among various sectors
and users is facilitated by the preparation of a master plan that reflects
the individual sector plans and offers the most effective and efficient
utilization of the resource.
Participation and coordination
mechanisms, fostering information-sharing and exchange: The identification
of key stakeholders can be facilitated through interviews and
meetings. Stakeholder involvement can be defined appropriately for local
conditions and improved gradually. Initial sharing of general basin-wide
data and information, and further sharing of more specific information,
will assist the self-sustaining system.
6.
What are the challenges in urban environment management? Suggest the measures
needed to improve urban environment.
Environmental degradation and
climate change implications on urban areas and cities are a global concern.
Urban environment management aims to mitigate the adverse impacts of rapid
urbanization. This method identified and measured the effect of a built-in environment.
The environmental management of Amman city, considering its exponential urban
growth, has witnessed several positive transformations, including urban
planning and the establishment of institutions, regulations, laws, mitigation
measures, and action plans to absorb the negative impacts.
This study documented the existing
situation and evaluated the same by reviewing the environmental challenges of
urbanization that Amman city is tackling. Particular attention was given to the
mitigation measures adopted and the ecological protection expenditure related
to overcoming these challenges; these were considered the indicators to measure
the efforts taken by public institutions towards environmental development,
thereby enhancing city resident's quality of life. Data were collected on the
ecological expenditures of the municipalities and other administrative
divisions of Jordan. This paper's scope and aim are to present the scholarly
literature on urban environmental management in Amman city concerning coping
with environmental risks and challenges and the importance of urban planning
and initiatives for environmental sustainability and the well-being of
citizens. For instance, Amman was the first Arab city to adopt a climate plan
to tackle environmental concerns such as inefficient land use and the price of
imported energy. Specific suggestions and recommendations are also presented in
this study, which can help formulate a successful approach towards a
sustainable, resilient and city.
One of the essential
recommendations that the survey reveals is the need for tools and methods to
identify and evaluate the most effective measures to increase the environmental
management of Amman's urban city. This report will initially contribute to
policy formulation and urban planning works for Amman city. This paper
discusses the GAM's environmental problems, potential mitigating strategies,
and the effects of population growth and urbanization during the past decade.
Traffic congestion and pollution are two additional significant problems in
GAM. To address GAM's environmental problems, the study's initial results
showed the need to implement specific measures, such as BRT. BRT is supported
by policies along the two trunk lines, enabling the city to expand past comprehensive
housing projects into more walkable, mixed-use communities with carbon-free
electricity and green building standards.
Producing and selling more fresh
food within the city itself can reduce the environmental impact of food
distribution, increase opportunities for inclusive local supply chains and
improve access to nutritious foods, for example through farmers’ markets.
In Medellin, Colombia, FAO has been
supporting the departments of Nariño, Antioquia and Boyacá to build community
gardens. More than 7 500 families have benefitted from these gardens, allowing
them to grow their own food with the possibility of selling the surplus. The
project was so successful that Colombia is now developing a number of
political, legislative and governmental initiatives to promote similar schemes
country-wide.
7.
Elaborate on the two paradigms of rural development.
Rural development involves a set of
activities and actions by diverse actors, individuals, organisations and
groups, which together lead to development and progress in rural areas.
However, progress may mean different things to different people. It may mean
material progress, growth of incomes and wealth, and poverty alleviation.
Historically, these have been the main considerations in development theory and
its practice. However, now-a-days other indicators of progress, such as
cultural, spiritual, and ethical are increasingly taking an important place
alongside material progress. This has led to a reformulated and holistic
concept of development. There are two main paradigms of rural development:
• The modernisation paradigm, and
• The holistic development
paradigm.
We now discuss these, in brief.
The modernisation paradigm Broadly
speaking, this paradigm equates development with four basic processes:
• Capital investment, which leads
to increase in productivity;
• The application of science to
production and services;
• The emergence of nation-states
and large-scale political and economic organisations; and
• The urbanisation of rural areas.
As nation states gained
independence from their erstwhile colonial rulers, most of them chose to follow
this path for rural development. The modernisation paradigm in rural
development has focused on growth in production and the expansion of the market
economy. If redistribution was part of the agenda, it was to be controlled by
the state.
The assumption has been that growth
and markets are best promoted by the state and by a range of external
interveners, donors and non-governmental organisations who know best about the
kind of production and what the markets required. Rural development was
achieved by big, bureaucratic organisations, with professionals and
administrators in command of the process. Economic criteria dominated
decisionmaking; social, environmental, political factors were given much less
importance; participation of the beneficiaries of the development process was
included only as an afterthought.
It is now accepted widely that the
modernisation paradigm has failed on a number of counts. Poverty and insecurity
still exist in many poor countries, as well as some resource-rich ones, despite
implementation of various development policies and programmes for four or five
decades. Due to these reasons, there has been a paradigm shift in theory and
practice of rural development. People are now turning towards a far more
holistic approach to rural development.
The holistic development paradigm
The new paradigm represents a move from an industrial approach to technology
development to an organic or holistic approach, with sustainable improvement
replacing profit as the implicit objective. In addition, it encompasses a shift
from a technocratic and exclusive approach to a participatory and inclusive
approach to development management; and from resource control by big
organisations to local resource management, considering the various common
property aspects.
8. Write short notes on the following (not exceeding 200
words):
a)
Waste management policy
The new rules have mandated the
source segregation of waste in order to channelise the waste to wealth by
recovery, reuse and recycle. Waste generators would now have to now segregate
waste into three streams- Biodegradables, Dry (Plastic, Paper, metal, Wood,
etc.) and Domestic Hazardous waste (diapers, napkins, mosquito repellants,
cleaning agents etc.) before handing it over to the collector.
Institutional generators, market
associations, event organisers and hotels and restaurants have been directly
made responsible for segregation and sorting the waste and manage in
partnership with local bodies. In case of an event, or gathering of more than
100 persons at any licensed/ unlicensed place, the organiser will have to
ensure segregation of waste at source and handing over of segregated waste to
waste collector or agency, as specified by the local authority.
All hotels and restaurants will
also be required to segregate biodegradable waste and set up a system of
collection to ensure that such food waste is utilised for composting /
biomethanation. The rules mandate that all resident welfare and market
associations and gated communities with an area of above 5,000 sq m will have
to segregate waste at source into material like plastic, tin, glass, paper and
others and hand over recyclable material either to authorised waste-pickers and
recyclers or to the urban local body.
b)
Community mobilisation
Community mobilization is the
process of bringing together as many stakeholders as possible to raise people's
awareness of and demand for a particular programme, to assist in the delivery
of resources and services, and to strengthen community participation for
sustainability and self-reliance. A lot can be achieved when people from
different parts of the community share a common goal and actively participate
in both identifying needs and being part of the solution. Community
mobilization helps to empower communities and enable them to initiate and
control their own development.
Little progress will be made
towards mainstreaming disability until community support is built up and the
different sectors of society become actively involved in the process of change.
CBR programmes can use community mobilization to bring together stakeholders in
the community, e.g. people with disabilities, family members, self-help groups,
disabled people's organizations, community members, local authorities, local
leaders, decision- and policy-makers, to address barriers within the community
and ensure the successful inclusion of people with disabilities in their
communities with equal rights and opportunities.
Community mobilization needs many
analytical and supportive resources which are internal (inside the community)
and external (outside the community) as well. Resources include:
Leadership
Organizational capacity
Communications channels
Assessments
Problem solving
Resource mobilization
c) Environmental equity
Environmental equity, and
environmental racism are different phrases that describe and explain central
features of the environmental justice movement, focusing on the disparate
impact of hazardous waste sites and other polluting facilities located in or
near distressed neighborhoods with high concentrations of ethnic minorities and
economically disadvantaged populations. Because the concepts and contexts
associated with each of these labels are complex and multidimensional, the
meaning of environmental justice and injustice has changed over time and can
differ considerably.
Following the core definition from
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), environmental justice seeks the
equitable treatment and involvement of people of all races, cultures, incomes,
and educational levels in the development, implementation, and enforcement of
environmental programs, laws, rules, and policies. Therefore, the concept of
environmental justice as a term with a more political connotation implies
justice on a distributive, procedural, and precautionary level. Distributive
justice requires an equitable distribution of the costs of environmental risks
and of the benefits of environmental values across the demographic and
geographic scales. Considerable emphasis is placed on procedural justice
defined as the extent to which political decision-making processes are applied
fairly and people are empowered to control and influence the decisions that
affect them (e.g., higher fines for dumping waste in white versus minority
communities). The precautionary principle is based on the attitude that
uncertainties in short- or long-term environmental impacts resulting from
deteriorating conditions in the everyday environment where people live and work
call for decision-making to keep public health from harm.
d)
Environmental
The natural
environment or natural world encompasses
all living and non-living things occurring naturally, meaning in
this case not artificial. The term is most often applied to
the Earth or some parts of Earth. This environment encompasses the
interaction of all living species, climate, weather and natural
resources that affect human survival and economic activity. The concept of
the natural environment can be distinguished as components:
Complete ecological
units that function as natural systems without massive civilized human
intervention, including all
vegetation, microorganisms, soil, rocks, atmosphere,
and natural phenomena that occur within their boundaries and their
nature.
Universal natural
resources and physical phenomena that lack clear-cut boundaries,
such as air, water, and climate, as well
as energy, radiation, electric charge, and magnetism, not
originating from civilized human actions.
In contrast to the natural
environment is the built environment. Built environments are where humans
have fundamentally transformed landscapes such as urban settings and
agricultural land conversion, the natural environment is greatly changed
into a simplified human environment. Even acts which seem less extreme, such as
building a mud hut or a photovoltaic system in
the desert, the modified environment becomes an artificial one. Though
many animals build things to provide a better environment for themselves, they
are not human, hence beaver dams, and the works of mound-building
termites, are thought of as natural.
People cannot find absolutely
natural environments on Earth, and naturalness usually varies in a
continuum, from 100% natural in one extreme to 0% natural in the other.
e)
Community forestry
Community forestry is a branch
of forestry that deals with the communal management of
forests for generating income from timber and non-timber forest
products as forms of goods while in other hand regulating ecosystem,
downstream settlements benefits from watershed conservation, carbon
sequestration and aesthetic values as in forms of services. It has been
considered one of the most promising options of combining forest conservation
with rural development and community empowerment and poverty
reduction objectives. Community forestry is defined by the Food and
Agricultural Organization of the United Nations as "any situation
that intimately involves local people in forestry
activity". Community forestry exists when the local community in an
area plays a significant role in land use decision-making and when the
community is satisfied with its involvement and benefits from the management of
the surrounding forest and its resources.
Community forestry is first
implemented through the establishment of a legal and institutional framework
including the revision of legal norms and regulations for forest management,
the development of National Forest Plans and the strengthening of
decentralization processes to sub-national levels of government. The second
principal line of action is the implementation of pilot projects to demonstrate
the feasibility of the community forestry framework. However, a study by
the Overseas Development Institute shows that the technical,
managerial and financial requirements stipulated by the framework are often
incompatible with local realities and interests. A successful legal and
institutional framework will incorporate the strengthening of existing
institutions and enable the dissemination of locally appropriate practices as
well as the local capacity for regulation and control.
f)
Environmental law
Environmental law is a
collective term encompassing aspects of the law that provide protection to the
environment. A related but distinct set of regulatory regimes, now
strongly influenced by environmental legal principles, focus on the
management of specific natural resources, such
as forests, minerals, or fisheries. Other areas, such as environmental
impact assessment, may not fit neatly into either category, but are nonetheless
important components of environmental law.
Early examples of legal
enactments designed to consciously preserve the environment, for its own sake
or human enjoyment, are found throughout history. In the common law, the
primary protection was found in the law of nuisance, but this only allowed
for private actions for damages or injunctions if there was harm to land. Thus,
smells emanating from pigsties, strict liability against dumping
rubbish, or damage from exploding dams. Private enforcement, however, was
limited and found to be woefully inadequate to deal with major environmental
threats, particularly threats to common resources. During the "Great
Stink" of 1858, the dumping of sewerage into the River
Thames began to smell so ghastly in the summer heat that Parliament had to
be evacuated. Ironically, the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers Act
1848 had allowed the Metropolitan Commission for Sewers to
close cesspits around the city in an attempt to "clean up"
but this simply led people to pollute the river.
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