MED 006
NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: PHYSICAL AND BIOTIC
Programme: MA/2021/2022
Course Code: MED 006
Max. Marks: 100
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MED 006 Free Solved
Assignment
1. (a) Differentiate between the following giving suitable
examples:
(i) Abiotic resources and biotic resources
The two major factors which are
responsible for shaping our ecosystem are biotic and abiotic factors. Thus, we
will look at the difference between biotic and abiotic to understand what they
mean. Further, biotic factors are living beings of an ecosystem. On the
other hand, abiotic factors are those which are non-living like physical
conditions and chemical agents in the ecosystem. For instance, physical
conditions are temperature, sunlight, etc. whereas chemical agents like gases,
minerals, soil, etc. Hence, you see how both these factors are essential and
impact the survival and process of reproduction. In addition, they also rely on
each other to function properly.
Biotic factors are those which
respond to the stimuli and also need the energy to work. Further, they grow,
develop, and comprise hereditary material like DNA which keeps transferring
from one generation to the other. Moreover, they also have the capability to
reproduce and give rise to their offsprings. Most importantly, biotic factors
have heavily reliant on abiotic factors for their growth and survival through
direct or indirect means. For instance, organisms that inhabit the sea are
dependant on the circumstances. In addition, they are accessibility to food and
nutrients, sunlight, temperature, water, pH, and more. Thus, if these factors
change, it will hamper their life and their population.
Abiotic factors are also called
environmental factors. Moreover, these along with biotic factors cover
approximately the entire biosphere. In other words, it is the sum covering all
the ecosystems. Moreover, abiotic factors consist of factors like humidity,
light, pH, soil, temperature, wind, climate, water, gases, and more. Similarly,
these non-living things influence the growth of the biotic factors in a direct
or indirect manner. For instance, if the temperature of a particular ecosystem
undergoes changes suddenly, it will have ill-effects on the plants, animals, and
living organisms living there. Consequently, either they will migrate from that
place or won’t be able to survive it and go extinct. Similarly, they may also
adapt to the changes and survive.
(ii) Renewable and non-renewable resources
A natural resource is
something supplied by nature that helps support life. When you think of natural
resources, you may think of minerals and fossil fuels.
However, ecosystems and the services they provide are also natural
resources. Biodiversity is a natural resource as well.
Renewable Resources
Renewable resources can be
replenished by natural processes as quickly as humans use them. Examples
include sunlight and wind. They are in no danger of being used up Metals and
other minerals are renewable too. They are not destroyed when they are used and
can be recycled.
Wind is a renewable resource. Wind
turbines like this one harness just a tiny fraction of wind energy.
Living things are considered to be
renewable. This is because they can reproduce to replace themselves. However,
they can be over-used or misused to the point of extinction. To be truly
renewable, they must be used sustainably. Sustainable use is the use
of resources in a way that meets the needs of the present and also preserves
the resources for future generations.
Nonrenewable
resources are natural resources that exist in fixed amounts and
can be used up. Examples include fossil fuels such as petroleum, coal, and
natural gas. These fuels formed from the remains of plants over hundreds of
millions of years. We are using them up far faster than they could ever be
replaced. At current rates of use, petroleum will be used up in just a few
decades and coal in less than 300 years. Nuclear power is also
considered to be a nonrenewable resource because it uses up uranium, which will
sooner or later run out. It also produces harmful wastes that are difficult to
dispose of safely.
Gasoline is made from crude oil.
The crude oil pumped out of the ground is a black liquid called petroleum,
which is a nonrenewable resource.
(b) Give a brief account of rivers of India which constitute
the major water resources.
A person can live without food for
a month, but only for a week without water. Nothing will quench thirst the way
water can. Water is the essential part of the modern day life. It is used for
drinking, bathing, washing, irrigation, industries and a host of other
purposes.
About 71 per cent of the earth’s
surface is covered by water and that is why our earth is called the ‘watery
planet’. In fact earth is the only planet in the entire solar system which
contains water and sustains life. No other planet in the solar system has, so
far, shown any trace of water and all the planets, except the earth, are
lifeless. But water on the earth surface is distributed in such a way that only
a small fraction of total water available on the earth is useful for human
consumption.
India’s Water Resources:
Rainfall is the main source of
fresh water in India. From precipitation alone (including snowfall), India
receives 4,000 km3 (Billion Cubic Metre—BCM) water. Of this, monsoon
rainfall from June to September alone accounts for about 3,000 km3. A good part
of it is lost through the process of evaporation and plant transpiration. Large
part of water percolates into the ground and is available to us in the form of
ground water.
Different authorities have given
different estimates about India’s water resources. According to the Ford
Foundation Team (1959)r India has one of the largest supplies of water in
the world. A broad assessment of water resources places the total average
annual surface run-off as varying from 1,633 BCM to 1,881 BCM. According to K.L.
Rao (1975), the total quantity of water in our river systems is 1,644.5 BCM.
The estimates made by the Ministry
of Water Resources have put the overall water resources of the country at 1,869
km3 (or 1,869 BCM). Due to various constraints of topography and uneven
distribution of water resource over space and time, the total utilisable water
resource is assessed as 1,122 km3 out of which 690 km3 is surface
water and 432 km3 is ground water. Obviously water is available in two
different forms, viz., (1) surface water, and (2) ground water.
Surface Water:
Surface water is available on the
surface of the earth in the form of rivers, lakes, ponds, canals, etc. However,
rivers comprise the most important source of surface water. India is blessed
with a large number of major, medium and small size rivers.
As many as 13 of them are
classified as major rivers whose total catchment area is 252.8 million hectares
(m. ha). This is about 83 per cent of the total area of all drainage basins. Of
the major rivers, the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna system is the biggest with
catchment area of about 110 million hectares (m. ha) which is more than 43 per
cent of the catchment area of all major rivers in the country. The other major
rivers with catchment area more than 10 m. ha are those of the Indus (32.1 m.
ha), Godavari (31.3 m. ha), Krishna (25.9 m. ha), and Mahanadi (14.2 m. ha).
2. (a) Giving suitable diagram, describe various horizons of
soil profile.
Formation of Soil
The soil has taken thousands of
years to form. Soil formation takes place in the following ways:
Big rocks break down into smaller
rocks by continuous action of wind and rain. It takes many years for these
rocks to break down into smaller rocks.
Rocks are mainly broken by two
types of weathering- physical weathering and chemical weathering. A number of
natural force, called agents, work to break down the parent rock into tiny
particles of soil. These agents include wind, water, the sun’s heat, and plants
and animals.
These pieces get further broken
down to form sand and silt and, ultimately, into finer particles and the
process continues. This process is very slow. It takes thousands of years to
form a just 1cm layer of soil. These fine particles form the top layer of the
soil.
Properties of Soil
Soil Erosion
Types of Soil and Suitable Soil
Soil Profile
The soil is found in layers, which
are arranged during the formation of soil. These layers called horizons, the
sequence of layers is the soil profile. The layers of soil can easily be
observed by their color and size of particles. The main layers of the soil
are topsoil, subsoil and the parent rock. Each layer has its own
characteristics.
These features of the layer of soil
play a very important role in determining the use of the soil. Soil that has
developed three layers, is mature soil. It takes many years under a favorable
condition for the soil to develop its three layers. At some places, the soil
contains only two layers. Such soil is immature soil.
Horizons of the Soil
Soil consists of the following
horizons:
1. Horizon A or Topsoil
It is also called the humus layer,
which is rich in organic material. This layer consists of decomposed material
and organic matter. This is the reason, the topsoil has a dark brown color. The
hummus makes the topsoil soft, porous to hold enough air and water. In this
layer, the seeds germinate and roots of the plants grow. Many living
organisms like earthworms, millipedes, and centipedes, bacteria,
and fungi are found in this layer of soil.
2. Horizon B or Subsoil
Just below the topsoil lies another
layer called subsoil or horizon-B. It is comparatively harder and compact than
topsoil. It is lighter in color than the topsoil because there is less humus in
this layer. This layer is less organic but is rich in minerals brought down
from the topsoil. It contains metal salts, especially iron oxide in a
large proportion. Farmers often mix horizon-A and horizon-B when ploughing
their fields.
3. Bedrock or Horizon C
Bedrock is also known as parent
rock and lies just below the subsoil. It contains no organic matter and made up
of stones and rocks, so it is very hard. This layer represents a transition
zone between the earth’s bedrock and horizon A and B
(b) Describe the characteristics of alkali soils. What are the
harmful effects of alkalinity?
Alkaline soils, which are very
common in semiarid and arid climates cover more than 25 % of the earth’s
surface. These soils are typically highly porous, freely draining and saturated
with calcium carbonate. The abundance of Ca2 + in the soil solution
limits P-solubility by forming sparingly soluble Ca-P compounds. In developing
countries, calcareous soils sustain traditional rain-feed cultivation despite
the intrinsic nutrient (P, Fe and Co) unavailability, which is imposed by
the high pH and cation abundance. However, high cost P fertilizers must be
added to maintain a sustainable agriculture (Marschner, 1995).
Alkaline soil extracts have
surfactant-like properties owing to their amphiphilic chemical nature. This
renders them capable of mobilizing certain contaminants. Conte et
al. (2005) were able to show that an alkaline leonardite extract
could be used in washings of a contaminated soil with the same efficiency as
that of synthetic surfactants which exhibit some degree of biological toxicity.
Similarly, alkaline extracts have also been shown to affect the dispersion of
carbonaceous nanomaterials in aqueous environments. The presence of alkaline
extracted materials greatly enhanced the dispersion of Fullerenes (C60) and the
dispersion process was further accelerated by sunlight (Li et al.,
2009). Chappell et al. (2009) showed that carbon nanotubes
were stabilized in suspension to a varying extent by the addition of different
types of alkaline extracts.
Alkaline drinking water is
considered safe. Currently, there’s no evidence that demonstrates negative side
effects.
Although alkaline water has a
different pH than regular water, your body will make physiological changes,
like continuing to produce hydrochloric acid, to regulate the stomach’s pH
levels and achieve homeostasis, which is a state of stability.
Water that’s naturally alkaline
occurs when water passes over rocks — like springs — and picks up minerals,
which increase its alkaline level.
However, many people who drink
alkaline water buy alkaline water that’s been through a chemical process called
electrolysis.
This technique uses a product
called an ionizer to raise the pH of regular water. Makers of ionizers say that
electricity is used to separate molecules in the water that are more acidic or
more alkaline. The acidic water is then funneled out.
Still, some doctors and researchers
say these claims aren’t backed by quality research. The water quality of the
original source, before ionization, is crucial to ensuring contaminants aren’t
present in the drinking water.
Some scientists advise using
reverse osmosis to adequately purify water before connecting an alkaline
ionizer, which can raise pH and add minerals.
A 2014 study Trusted
Source cautions against drinking water with low mineral content, which is
created by reverse osmosis, distillation, and other methods (without additional
mineralization) on a regular basis.
3. (a) List the advantages of using solar energy. Give its
important applications in daily life.
1. Renewable Energy Source
Among all the benefits of solar
panels, the most important thing is that solar energy is a truly
renewable energy source. It can be harnessed in all areas of the world and
is available every day. We cannot run out of solar energy, unlike some of
the other sources of energy.
Solar energy will be accessible as
long as we have the sun, therefore sunlight will be available to us for at
least 5 billion years when according to scientists the sun is going to die.
2. Reduces Electricity Bills
Since you will be meeting some of
your energy needs with the electricity your solar system has generated,
your energy bills will drop. How much you save on your bill will be
dependent on the size of the solar system and your electricity or heat usage.
For example, if you are a business
using commercial solar panels this switch can have huge benefits
because the large system size can cover large chunks of your energy bills.
Moreover, not only will you be
saving on the electricity bill, but there is also a possibility to receive
payments for the surplus energy that you export back to the grid through
the Smart Export Guarantee (SEG). If you generate more electricity
than you use (considering that your solar panel system is connected to the
grid).
3. Diverse Applications
Solar energy can be used for
diverse purposes. You can generate electricity (photovoltaics)
or heat (solar thermal). Solar energy can be used to produce
electricity in areas without access to the energy grid, to distil water in
regions with limited clean water supplies and to power satellites in space.
Solar energy can also
be integrated into the materials used for buildings. Not long ago Sharp
introduced transparent solar energy windows.
4. Low Maintenance Costs
Solar energy systems
generally don’t require a lot of maintenance. You only need to keep them
relatively clean, so cleaning them a couple of times per year will do the job.
If in doubt, you can always rely on specialised cleaning companies, which offer
this service from around £25-£35.
Most reliable solar panel
manufacturers offer 20-25 years warranty.
Also, as there are no moving parts,
there is no wear and tear. The inverter is usually the only part that needs to
be changed after 5-10 years because it is continuously working to
convert solar energy into electricity and heat (solar PV vs. solar
thermal). Apart from the inverter, the cables also need maintenance to ensure
your solar power system runs at maximum efficiency.
So, after covering the initial cost
of the solar system, you can expect very little spending on
maintenance and repair work.
All of the life that is on the
earth can survive because of the sun. Every day, the energy given from the
sun’s rays sustains life. It provides us with heat, light, health benefits and
various other applications, like the widely used and known solar energy.
Without the sun, the earth would be just a ball of rock without any life
forms.
The importance of solar energy in
our daily life is more significant than any other thing in your life — besides
water and food. Solar energy has been growing as a renewable and alternative
energy source. That’s why it’s necessary to understand the importance of the
sun’s power because, if you don’t already, you could very well be reliant on
the sun for your daily energy needs.
Solar energy is not a new concept.
People centuries ago used the sun for daily activities and tasks. While people
didn’t use the sun’s energy how it is commonly used today, it was still an
essential source for them to be able to live and survive.
Have you ever watched a survival
show where the person used the sun to start a fire or been in a science class
where you used a magnifying glass to light a piece of paper on fire? That
practice began in the 7th century B.C. The sun’s rays are
concentrated with the magnifying glass, which heats something enough to start a
fire.
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Additionally, humans have used the
sun’s heat for various purposes. Bathhouses were popular in ancient Rome. They
used the sun to heat the water. Also, the sun’s heat has been used passively to
heat homes or provide light, which is still used today.
Humans have used the sun to cook
meals as well. The multiple sunlight and solar energy applications have made it
possible for humans to thrive on this earth.
(b) How can solid biomass be used meaningfully as a bio fuel?
Explain.
The energy from these organisms can
be transformed into usable energy through direct and indirect means. Biomass can
be burned to create heat (direct), converted
into electricity (direct), or processed
into biofuel (indirect).
Thermal Conversion
Biomass can be burned
by thermal conversion and used for energy. Thermal
conversion involves heating the biomass feedstock in order to
burn, dehydrate, or stabilize it. The most familiar biomass
feedstocks for thermal conversion are raw
materials such as municipal solid waste (MSW) and scraps from
paper or lumber mills.
Different types of energy are created through direct firing, co-firing, pyrolysis, gasification,
and anaerobic decomposition.
Before biomass can be burned, however, it must be dried. This chemical process
is called torrefaction. During torrefaction, biomass is heated to
about 200° to 320° Celsius (390° to 610° Fahrenheit). The biomass dries out so
completely that it loses the ability to absorb moisture, or rot. It loses about
20% of its original mass, but retains 90% of its energy. The lost energy and
mass can be used to fuel the torrefaction process.
During torrefaction, biomass becomes a dry, blackened material. It is then
compressed into briquettes. Biomass briquettes are
very hydrophobic, meaning they repel water. This makes it possible to
store them in moist areas. The briquettes have high energy
density and are easy to burn during direct or co-firing.
Direct Firing and Co-Firing
Most briquettes are
burned directly. The steam produced during the firing process powers
a turbine, which turns a generator and
produces electricity. This electricity can be used for manufacturing
or to heat buildings.
Biomass can also be co-fired, or burned with a fossil fuel. Biomass is
most often co-fired in coal plants. Co-firing eliminates
the need for new factories for processing biomass. Co-firing also
eases the demand for coal. This reduces the amount of carbon dioxide and
other greenhouse gases released by burning fossil fuels.
Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is a related method of heating biomass. During pyrolysis,
biomass is heated to 200° to 300° C (390° to 570° F) without the presence of
oxygen. This keeps it from combusting and causes the biomass to be
chemically altered.
Pyrolysis produces a dark liquid called pyrolysis oil,
a synthetic gas called syngas, and a solid residue
called biochar. All of these components can be used for energy.
Pyrolysis oil, sometimes called bio-oil or biocrude, is a type
of tar. It can be combusted to
generate electricity and is also used as a component in other fuels
and plastics. Scientists and engineers are studying pyrolysis oil as
a possible alternative to petroleum.
Syngas can be converted into
fuel (such as synthetic natural gas). It can also be converted
into methane and used as a replacement for natural gas.
Biochar is a type of charcoal. Biochar is a carbon-rich
solid that is particularly useful
in agriculture. Biochar enriches soil and prevents it
from leaching pesticides and
other nutrients into runoff. Biochar is also an
excellent carbon sink. Carbon sinks are reservoirs for
carbon-containing chemicals, including greenhouse gases.
Gasification
Biomass can also be directly converted to energy
through gasification. During the gasification process,
a biomass feedstock (usually MSW) is heated to more than 700° C
(1,300° F) with a controlled amount of oxygen. The molecules break down, and produce syngas and slag.
Syngas is a combination of hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
During gasification, syngas is cleaned of sulfur, particulates,
mercury, and other pollutants. The clean syngas can
be combusted for heat or electricity, or processed into transportation biofuels,
chemicals, and fertilizers.
4. (a) Explain the process of soil erosion. Briefly discuss the
factors causing the soil erosion.
Soil erosion is a gradual process
that occurs when the impact of water or wind detaches and removes soil particles,
causing the soil to deteriorate. Soil deterioration and low water quality due
to erosion and surface runoff have become severe problems worldwide. The
problem may become so severe that the land can no longer be cultivated and must
be abandoned. Many agricultural civilizations have declined due to land and
natural resource mismanagement, and the history of such civilizations is a good
reminder to protect our natural resources.
Erosion is a serious problem for
productive agricultural land and for water quality concerns. Controlling the
sediment must be an integral part of any soil management system to improve
water and soil quality. Eroded topsoil can be transported by wind or water into
streams and other waterways. Sediment is a product of land erosion and derives
largely from sheet and rill erosion from upland areas, and to a lesser degree,
from cyclic erosion activity in gullies and drainageways.
The impact of soil erosion on water
quality becomes significant, particularly as soil surface runoff. Sediment
production and soil erosion are closely related. Therefore, the most effective
way to minimize sediment production is the stabilization of the sediment source
by controlling erosion. Several conservation practices can be used to control
erosion but first you need to understand the factors affecting soil erosion.
Soil erosion is the detachment and movement of soil particles from the point of
origination through the action of water or wind. Thus, minimizing the impact of
water or wind forces is the main objective for erosion control. Water erosion
is the most pertinent erosion problem in Iowa.
Soil erosion can occur in two
stages: 1) detachment of soil particles by raindrop impact, splash, or flowing
water; and 2) transport of detached particles by splash or flowing water.
Therefore, soil erosion is a physical process requiring energy, and its control
requires certain measures to dissipate this energy.
It is the natural process of
wearing away of the topsoil, but human activities have accelerated the process.
It is usually caused due to the
removal of vegetation, or any activity that renders the ground dry.
Farming, grazing, mining,
construction and recreational activities are some of the causes of soil
erosion.
The effects of soil erosion are not
just land degradation. It has led to a drastic increase in pollution and
sedimentation in rivers that clogs the water bodies resulting in a decline in
the population of aquatic organisms.
Degraded lands lose the water
holding capacity resulting in floods.
The health of the soil is of utmost
importance to the farmers and the population that depends upon agriculture for
food and employment. There are several challenges to resist soil erosion, but
there are solutions to prevent it as well.
(b) Why is measurement of species diversity important? How is
species richness expressed? Briefly explain.
Biodiversity is a measure that
combines richness and evenness across species. It is often measured because
high biodiversity is perceived a synonymous with ecosystem health. In
general diverse communities are believed to have increased stability, increased
productivity, and resistance to invasion and other disturbances.
Diverse habitats with a variety of
plants can have benefits such as:
Providing forage for a variety of
insect and vertebrate species.
Stability resulting from plants in
the community that are able to survive drought, insect plagues, and/or disease
outbreaks so that the site will have some soil protection/forage/etc. in those
years.
Plants containing a variety of
genetic material that may be useful in long-term survival and stability of the
community.
The community benefits from a
mixture of plants:
• soils improve with nitrogen
fixers, deep rooted plants bring nutrients up from soil layers below other
plants roots.
• some species work together
so that both can survive (called commensalism) and therefore, diverse
communities can be more stable.
Healthy diverse plant communities
generally have all niches filled and are theoretically less likely to be
invaded by noxious or opportunistic introduced species
Species richness represents a
measure of the variety of species based simply on a count of the number of
species in a particular sample, although it can be expressed more usefully as
species richness pre unit area, ranging from alpha (referring to a certain
site) to gamma (for an entire study area) level.
The terms “biodiversity,” “species
diversity,” and “species richness” are sometimes used in confusing ways. In
some papers, the term “species richness” is used in the title and in the text
it is assumed to mean the number of species, but this may not be made clear. By
way of contrast, “diversity” is sometimes used in the title, but in the text
the data seem to refer to the number of species only. However, in 2003 Spellerberg
and Fedor suggested that “species richness” should be used to refer to the
number of species (in a given area or in a given sample) and “species
diversity” should be retained for use in this context, that is, as an
expression of some relation between the number of species and number of
individuals. Rather than using the terms “species richness” and “species
diversity” interchangeably, it is helpful to distinguish between these two
terms.
5. (a) Discuss the salient features of grasslands as the
terrestrial biomes of the world.
Grassland Biomes
Grassland biomes occur primarily in
the interiors of continents (Figure 4) and are characterized by large seasonal
temperature variations, with hot summers and cold winters (Figure 8).
Precipitation varies, with a strong summer peak. The type of grassland
community that develops, and the productivity of grasslands, depends strongly
upon precipitation. Higher precipitation leads to tall grass prairie with a
high biodiversity of grasses and forbs. Lower precipitation leads to short
grass prairies and arid grasslands.
Net primary productivity in dry
grasslands may be 400 g m-2 yr-1, while higher precipitation may support
up to 1 kg m-2 yr-1. Grasslands grade into deciduous forest biomes on
their wetter margins, and deserts on their drier margins. The borders between
grasslands and other biomes are dynamic and shift according to precipitation,
disturbance, fire and drought. Fire and drought will favor grassland over
forest communities.
Three major selective forces
dominate the evolution of plant traits in grasslands, recurring fire, periodic
drought, and grazing. These factors have led to the dominance of
hemicryptophytes in grasslands with perennating organs located at or below the
soil surface. Many grasses have below ground rhizomes connecting above ground
shoots or tillers. Grass blades grow from the bottom up, with actively dividing
meristems at the base of the leaf. Thus when grazers eat the grass blade, the
meristem continues to divide and the blade can continue to grow. Grasses are
often decay-resistant, and recurring cool, fast moving surface fires started by
lightning at the end of summer aid in nutrient recycling. Fires stimulate
productivity and the germination of fire resistant seeds.
Many of the world’s largest
terrestrial animals are found in grasslands. Animals such as gray kangaroos
(Macropus giganteus) in Australia, Bison (Bison bonasus) and horses
(Equus spp.) in Eurasia and North America were part of species rich
assemblages of grazing animals, their predators, and scavengers. Remnant herds
in North America suggest that disturbances due to grazers increased local
biodiversity by creating openings that rare species could colonize. Large
grazers also accelerated plant decomposition through their droppings, creating
nutrient hotspots that altered species composition.
Temperate Deciduous Forest Biome
Temperature deciduous forests occur
in mid-latitudes (Figure 4) where cool winters, warm summers, and high year
round precipitation occurs (Figure 9). Net primary productivity ranges from
600–1500 g m-2 yr-1 with high litter production. Litter serves as a
major pathway for nutrient recycling. This biome is named for the dominant
trees that drop their leaves during the winter months. These forests may have
an overstory of 20–30 m tall trees, an understory of 5–10 m trees and shrubs, a
shrub layer around 1–2 m in height, and a ground layer of herbaceous plants.
Biodiversity is relatively high in this biome due to the niche partitioning
allowed by the multiple forest layers. More complex forests are associated with
a greater number of animal species; for example, bird species diversity shows a
positive correlation with forest height and number of layers.
Mediterranean Climate Biomes
This small biome (about 1.8 million
square km) is separated into five separate regions between 30–40 degrees N and
S latitude (Figure 4) with hot, dry summers, and cool, moist winters (Figure
10). Unrelated evergreen, sclerophyllous shrubs and trees have evolved
independently in each of these areas, representing a striking example of
convergent evolution. Net primary productivity varies from 300–600 g
m-2 yr-1, dependent upon water availability, soil depth, and age of the
stand. Stand productivity decreases after 10–20 years as litter and woody
biomass accumulates. Recurring fires aid in nutrient cycling and many plants
show fire-induced or fire-promoted flowering. Some species are able to resprout
from buds protected by the soil, while others germinate from decay-resistant
seeds that lie dormant in the soil until a fire promotes their germination.
Therophytes make up a large component of the flora, and their appearance is
associated with openings created by fires.
(b) Where is the Indian Desert zone located? Give a brief
account of the wildlife of the Indian desert.
Thar Desert, also called Great
Indian Desert, arid region of rolling sand hills on the Indian subcontinent. It
is located partly in Rajasthan state, northwestern India, and partly
in Punjab and Sindh (Sind) provinces,
eastern Pakistan.
The Thar Desert covers some 77,000
square miles (200,000 square km) of territory. It is bordered by the
irrigated Indus River plain to the west, the Punjab
Plain to the north and northeast, the Aravalli Range to the
southeast, and the Rann of Kachchh to the south. The subtropical
desert climate there results from persistent high
pressure and subsidence at that latitude. The prevailing southwest monsoon winds that
bring rain to much of the subcontinent in summer tend to bypass the Thar to the
east. The name Thar is derived from thul, the general term for the
region’s sand ridges.
The Thar Desert, the pride of
Rajasthan, is also called an ocean of sand. The Thar or Great Indian Desert has
an unmatched variety of fauna; while its climatic and geographical conditions
are harsh, various desert animals and plants have adapted to live in them with
ease.
There are currently 11
national parks in the Thar Desert, the largest of which are the Rann of
Kutch and the Nara Desert Wildlife Sanctuaries. The Rann of Kutch is the only
protected area and natural habitat for the Indian Wild Ass, an endangered
species of India.
Some of the native species of the
Thar Desert include the desert scorpion, the red fox, the mongoose, the
chinkara, the falcon, the blackbuck, the Indian Bustard and the wild cat; of
course, when it comes to desert animals, the camel - the ship of the desert -
cannot be far behind either. Do you want to learn more? Stay with us at
AnimalWised and discover the native animals of the Thar Desert.
6. (a) Explain ‘consumptive use values’ and ‘productive use
values’ of biodiversity giving suitable examples.
Consumptive Use Value: Many natural
products are consumed at local level by human beings. But we neither sell nor
buy these products. These products do not make direct contribution to the
nation's economy. The value of these products is called consumptive use value
of biodiversity.
(a) We pay for almost all the food
we consume but we do not pay for the soil, water and air which play Important
role in food production.
(b) Many naturally occurring herbs are used for their medicinal use by
indigenous people. In most of the cases, people do not need to pay for using
such plants. This also shows consumptive use value.
(c) Firewood is used by about
2.4 million people all over the world for cooking and heating. People who use
firewood do not need to pay for that. Had they been using some other fuel they
would have paid some money for that. This shows consumptive use value of
firewood.
(d) In rural area, people often use
naturally growing fibre plants for making ropes and other useful Items. They
don't pay for the fibre. This shows consumptive use value of fibre.
Productive Use Value refers to the
commercial value of products that are commercially harvested for exchange in
formal markets, such as game meat, timber, fish, ivory, medicinal plants. They
are included in national income accounts like the GNP. Estimates are usually
made at the production end (sale of timber by the timber harvester to the
sawmill), rather than the eventual value of the furniture and houses built from
the timber. In developing countries, the commercial value of natural resources
usually is a much greater fraction of the national economy than is the case in
developed countries.
Much attention has focused recently
around alternative uses of the rain forest. Usually, this is the search for
valued non-wood products that can be harvested sustainably (fruits such as
Brasil nuts, and latex from rubber-tapping).
INDIRECT VALUES
Non-consumptive Use
Value refers to all of the "functions" or "services"
of natural systems, as well as scientific research, bird-watching, etc. They
rarely are included in any national accounting. Table 1 below lists some
important ecosystem goods and services.
Option Value refers to the
value of retaining options available for the future, such as yet-undiscovered
new crops and medicines.
Existence Value refers to the
value of ethical feelings for the existence of nature. Many of us attach value
to the existence of a species or habitat that we are unlikely ever to see --
mountain gorillas, the deep rainforests of Amazonia, the highlands of
Madagascar. This may include the satisfaction of knowing that certain species
exist in the wild, or an ethical dimension of responsibility to nature, or
future generations, or other peoples. WWF receives donations of $100 million a
year on this basis, and it is by no means the only or biggest recipient of such
donations.
(b) Using suitable examples, discuss how does biodiversity
provides raw materials for industries.
Biodiversity is important to humans
for many reasons. Biodiversity is also considered by many to have
intrinsic value—that is, each species has a value and
a right to exist, whether or not it is known to have value to humans.
The biodiversity book by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
Research Organisation (CSIRO; Morton & Hill 2014) describes
5 core (and interacting) values that humans place on biodiversity:
Economic—biodiversity provides
humans with raw materials for consumption and production. Many livelihoods,
such as those of farmers, fishers and timber workers, are dependent
on biodiversity.
Ecological life
support—biodiversity provides functioning ecosystems that supply oxygen,
clean air and water, pollination of plants, pest control, wastewater treatment
and many ecosystem services.
Recreation—many recreational
pursuits rely on our unique biodiversity, such as birdwatching, hiking,
camping and fishing. Our tourism industry also depends on biodiversity.
Cultural—the Australian culture is
closely connected to biodiversity through the expression of identity,
through spirituality and through aesthetic appreciation. Indigenous Australians
have strong connections and obligations to biodiversity arising from
spiritual beliefs about animals and plants.
Scientific—biodiversity represents
a wealth of systematic ecological data that help us to understand the natural
world and its origins.
Any loss or deterioration in
the condition of biodiversity can compromise all the values
outlined above and affect human wellbeing. The Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment in 2005 was the first global effort to examine links between
human wellbeing and biodiversity. The assessment found benefits to
societies from biodiversity in material welfare, security of
communities, resilience of local economies, relations among groups in
communities, and human health. It also emphasised the term
‘ecosystem services’ under 4 broad categories (Morton & Hill 2014):
·
provisioning services—the production of food, fibre
and water
·
regulating services—the control of climate and
diseases
·
supporting services—nutrient cycling and crop
pollination
·
cultural services—such as spiritual and recreational
benefits.
Global importance
Australia is renowned for its
globally distinct ecosystems, made up of diverse flora and fauna. Around
150,000 species have been formally described in Australia, but this
is only about 25 per cent of the total number present. Many species,
such as insects, remain largely undiscovered. Australia is considered one of
the world’s 17 megadiverse countries, which together account for
70 per cent of the world’s biological diversity across less than
10 per cent of the world’s surface. Scientifically, our biodiversity is
highly regarded for its diversity, endemism and evolutionary
adaptations, but it is also an inseparable part of our Indigenous culture and
how we identify as Australians.
Australia has an evolutionarily
distinct flora and fauna, including many palaeoendemics, which have ancient
lineages associated with the Australian continent. Some of these are the few
remaining species surviving from ancient times (e.g. gymnosperms
such as the pencil pine—Athrotaxis cupressoides and the Wollemi pine—Wollemia
nobilis).
When compared with other countries,
Australia has very high levels
of endemism (i.e. species found only in Australia):
46 per cent of our birds, 69 per cent of mammals (including
marine mammals), 94 per cent of amphibians, 93 per cent of
flowering plants and 93 per cent of reptiles. Other groups, such as
the eucalypts, are mostly found in Australia or nearby.
7. (a) What are fragile habitats? Which human activities are
responsible for habitat loss?
Fragile ecosystems are important
ecosystems, with unique features and resources. Fragile ecosystems include
deserts, semi–arid lands, mountains, wetlands, small islands and certain
coastal areas. Most of these ecosystems are regional in scope, as they
transcend national boundaries.
Desert: The Thar Desert or the
Great Indian Desert is a large, arid region in the north-western part of the
Indian subcontinent, is the world's 17th largest desert, and the world's 9th
largest subtropical desert. About 85% of the Thar Desert is in India, and the
remaining part in Pakistan. In India, it covers about 320,000 km2, of which 60%
is in Rajasthan and extends into the states of Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana.
Wetlands: India, with its varying
topography and climatic regimes, supports diverse and unique wetland habitats.
The available estimates about the areal extent of wetlands in India vary widely
from a lowest of 1% to a highest of 5% of geographical area, but do support
nearly fifth of the known biodiversity. These wetlands are distributed in
different geographical regions ranging from Himalayas to Deccan plateau.
Mountains: The major mountain
ranges in India are the Himalayas and the Western Ghats.The Himalayas are the
highest mountainous range in theworld that traverses an arc of about 2500 km
between the Indus and theBrahmaputra rivers with an average width ranging from
100 to 400 km. TheHimalayas pass through eight countries, namely Afghanistan,
Pakistan, India, China,Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar. In India, this
mountain ecosystem isspread over 11 states, viz. Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh, Uttaranchal,Sikkim, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya,
Mizoram, Nagaland,Tripura and West Bengal. These two mountainous ranges are
recognised as two hottest biodiversity hotspots of the world, exhibit high
level of endemism.
Islands: There are a total of 1,208
islands, including uninhabited ones in India. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Union Territory is a tropical archipelago of 572 islands in the Bay of Bengal,
situated between 6°45'–13°41' N and 92°12'–93°57' E, and covering a total
geographical area of 8,249 km2 with a coastline of 1,962 km. These islands
have unique flora and fauna, and exhibits high level of endemism.
Coastal areas: India has a
coastline of 7516.6 km, nine states and two union territories of the
country have coastal areas. These coastal areas have 97 major estuaries, 34
major lagoons, 31 mangrove areas and 5 coral reef areas, and these various
habitats support unique flora and fauna.
Activities such
as harvesting natural resources, industrial production
and urbanization are human contributions to habitat destruction.
Pressure from agriculture is the principal human cause. Some others
include mining, logging, trawling, and urban sprawl. Habitat
destruction is currently considered the primary cause of
species extinction worldwide. Environmental factors can contribute to
habitat destruction more indirectly. Geological processes, climate change,
introduction of invasive species, ecosystem nutrient depletion, water and noise
pollution are some examples. Loss of habitat can be preceded by an
initial habitat fragmentation.
Attempts to address habitat
destruction are in international policy commitments embodied
by Sustainable Development Goal 15 "Life on Land"
and Sustainable Development Goal "Life Below Water".
However, the United Nations Environment Programme report on
"Making Peace with Nature" released in 2021 found that most of these
efforts had failed to meet their internationally agreed upon goals.
(b) Describe the major causes of biodiversity loss in Asia.
On a daily basis we have seen
scientists, experts, and environmental groups warning us about the climate
crisis and the effects it will have on our planet. Sustainable development as
well as climate policies as solutions to cure the climate related issues are
becoming integrated parts of our societies. However, the single largest
environmental problem is the rate of biodiversity loss (Sodhi et al, 2010b),
still decision-makers and the media remain as silent as our forests will be within
a few decades. While we are travelling to experience tropical countries, the
world’s species are going extinct at alarming rates. This is evident in
Southeast Asia, where habitat destruction coupled with endemism is high. We are
currently living through the “6th massextinction”, where species are declining
faster than ever in human history, this is caused by human pressure on the
Earth’s support systems through various activities (Braje & Erlandson,
2013).
This thesis will concentrate on the
biodiversity loss in Southeast Asia, since it is the single most species rich
area on Earth, with most endemic species and the area that faces the largest
extinction rates caused by habitat loss. First coming across the issues of
biodiversity loss in Southeast Asia, we learn that the lack of knowledge and
research is a significant issue. Therefore, an attempt of researching the
current (2010-2019) published scientific literature could possibly answer what
research is being conducted and funded in the field in the area.
The aim of this thesis is to find
out what the biodiversity conservation research conducted in Southeast Asia is
focusing on through reading and analyzing recent scientific literature. The
research questions aims to answer what problems that exists in the biodiversity
conservation research in Southeast Asia and what ways to halt the biodiversity
loss in the region that exists according to the literature. Limits of this
thesis are; limited material being reviewed in this study, limited knowledge
and studies in the specific field in the region, limits of data in the region
and pre-existing bias of scientific literature being conducted in the field.
Southeast Asia is an area of great
development, and the growing economy and population is rapidly changing the
Southeast Asian ecosystems. Evolutionary processes on Earth and geological
shifts has made the Southeast Asian region unique and created places like the
many islands that together forms Indonesia, an unique country with very high
species endemism. Southeast Asia has one of the highest amount of species
richness, endemism and unique ecological processes in the world (Sodhi, Koh,
Brook, Peter, & Nq, 2004). Unfortunately, because of the pressure on these
ecosystems they are under great threat of extinction. Anthropogenic pressure of
the Earth’s systems is the foremost driver of biodiversity loss worldwide and
the rapid loss of biodiversity is one of our most pressing environmental
problems today (Sala, Chapin III, Armesto, Berlow & Bloomfirld, 2000, Rockström
et al, 2009,
8. (a) What is habitat-based approach of conserving
biodiversity? Discuss its advantages and drawbacks.
Habitat conservation for wild
species is one of the most important issues facing the environment today — both
in the ocean and on land. As human populations increase, land use increases,
and wild species have smaller spaces to call home. More than half of Earth’s
terrestrial surface has been altered due to human activity, resulting in
drastic deforestation, erosion and loss of topsoil, biodiversity loss, and
extinction. Species cannot survive outside of their natural habitat without
human intervention, such as the habitats found in a zoo or aquarium, for
example. Preserving habitats is essential to preserving biodiversity. Migratory
species are particularly vulnerable to habitat destruction because they tend to
inhabit more than one natural habitat. This creates the need to not only
preserve the two habitats for migratory species, but also their migratory
route. Altering a natural habitat even slightly can result in a domino effect
that harms the entire ecosystem.
Habitats don’t exist in isolation;
most of them have inputs and outputs connected to other habitats and
ecosystems. Take Mono Lake, for instance, a spectacular lake on the east side
of the Sierra Nevada in California. Its water source is streams fed by winter
rains and melting snow in the mountains. In its natural state, water leaves the
lake only by evaporation. The balance between the inflowing streams and
evaporation created a saline lake with many unique features, including a
species of brine shrimp found only in Mono Lake. As a large, food-rich body of
water in a desert area, the lake is a major fueling stop for migratory
waterbirds and a major nesting area for other species, such as California
gulls. When water from the lake’s inflowing streams was diverted to quench the
ever-growing thirst of Southern California, the lake level dropped drastically.
Islands in the lake became connected to the mainland, giving coyotes and other
predators access to an easy source of food: nesting California gulls. With
adequate inflowing water, the islands were good nesting habitat; without the
water they were unsuitable as nesting habitat. Without adequate inflowing
water, the lake also would become too saline for the Mono brine shrimp to
survive and for migratory waterbirds to feed in. Recognition of this
fundamental relationship between inflow and habitat for many species was the
partial basis of a successful court action that reduced the diversion of water
from the inflowing streams.
(b) What is Project Elephant? Discuss main activities and
objectives of this project.
Project Elephant is a Central
Government sponsored scheme launched in February 1992.
Through the Project Elephant
scheme, the government helps in the protection and management of elephants to
the states having wild elephants in a free-ranging population.
It ensures the protection of
elephant corridors and elephant habitat for the survival of the elephant
population in the wild.
This elephant conservation strategy
is mainly implemented in 16 of 28 states or union territories in the country
which includes Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh
Jharkhand, Kerala, Karnataka, Meghalaya, Maharashtra, Nagaland, Orissa, Tamil
Nadu, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal.
Project activities are actions
undertaken by the project to achieve the set objectives.
It is an easy mistake to confuse
what you do with what you are trying to accomplish. Remember, completion of the
project is not the goal in and of itself; the purpose of the project
is to create a change in the community. Your activities are the actions you
will take, and the objectives are why you took those actions in the first
place.
The union government provides
technical and financial help to these states to carry out and achieve the goals
of project elephant. Not just that, assistance for the purpose of the census,
training of field officials is also provided to ensure the mitigation and
prevention of man-elephant conflict.
Activities should be based on the
objectives, so there will be some overlap. Additionally, both objectives and
activities need to be specific and follow SMART guidelines, which can lead
to further similarities. However, a clear distinction must be made, otherwise,
your monitoring and evaluation plan will be set up to review the
wrong measures and you will not be able to see your impact.
For example, if your goal is to
“raise awareness of human rights issues in your community”, your objective
cannot be “to bring 20 community leaders together in a 2-day human rights
training workshop”. This is an activity, and measuring this activity only
proves that you completed the activity; it does not prove that this activity
made any progress towards accomplishing your goal.
A better objective for this
activity may be “gain 20 new leaders willing to be human rights advocates.”
With this objective, you can count how many advocates there were before your
project and show how that number increased after your project to prove your
impact.
9. (a) Why are botanical gardens important? Briefly describe
about the botanical gardens of India and their role.
Botanical gardens devote their
resources to the study and conservation of plants, as well as making the world's
plant species diversity known to the public. These gardens also play a central
role in meeting human needs and providing well-being. In this minireview, a
framework for the integrated missions of botanical gardens, including
scientific research, in/ex situ conservation, plant resource
utilization, and citizen science are cataloged. By reviewing the history of the
development of Kunming Botanical Garden, we illustrate successful species
conservation approaches (among others, projects involving Camellia, Rhododendron, Magnolia, Begonia, Allium, Nepenthes,
medicinal plants, ornamental plants, and Plant Species with Extreme Small
Populations), as well as citizen science, and scientific research at Kunming
Botanical Garden over the past 80 years. We emphasize that Kunming Botanical
Garden focuses largely on the ex situ conservation of plants from
Southwest China, especially those endangered, endemic, and economically
important plant species native to the Yunnan Plateau and the southern Hengduan Mountains.
Botanical gardens are meant for
research as well as recreation. In botanical gardens, all kinds of plant
species are maintained for the benefit of students of botany, researchers, and
the general public. These plantations are designed in such a way that they
serve the purpose of the public park too. Botanical gardens in India are
usually maintained by research institutes, universities, and other
agencies.
1. Lalbagh Botanical Gardens, Bangalore:
The area of the garden is 50
hectares. The initial layout of the garden started in the 1760s by Hyder Ali.
Possibly the most attractive feature of the garden is the large glasshouse
where the annual flower shows are held. The tall and majestic-looking Christmas
trees are a sight to behold. The landscaping features here are something that
you cannot miss. Know about the gardens that will heal your soul
2. Government Botanical Gardens, Ooty:
This garden is situated at an
altitude of 2,200 mt above sea level in the Nilgiri hills. It started
functioning in 1848 and covers an area of 20 hectares in ascending terraces.
This garden is a pioneer in introducing vegetables, spices, condiments, and
aromatic plants in India; including Cinchona and different rare Eucalyptus
species. Learn about terrace gardening in India.
(b) ‘Economic incentives can make biodiversity an asset rather
than a liability’. Justify this statement.
Biodiversity loss is among the top
global risks to society. The planet is now facing its sixth mass extinction,
with consequences that will affect all life on Earth, both now and for millions
of years to come. Humans have destroyed or degraded vast areas of the world’s
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems. Natural forests declined by
6.5 million hectares per year between 2010 and 2015 (in total, an area larger
than the U.K.), and natural wetlands declined by 35% between 1970 and 2015.
Over 30% of corals are now at risk from bleaching, and 60% of vertebrate
populations have disappeared since 1970.
These striking changes are driven
by land-use change, over-exploitation of natural resources, pollution, invasive
alien species and climate change. They are occurring in spite of international
efforts (such as the Convention on Biological Diversity) to conserve and
sustainably use biodiversity. Human pressures are undermining the biodiversity
that underpins all life on land and below water. Ecosystem services delivered
by biodiversity, such as crop pollination, water purification, flood protection
and carbon sequestration, are vital to human well-being. Globally, these
services are worth an estimated USD 125-140 trillion (US dollars) per year,
i.e. more than one and a half times the size of global GDP. The costs of
inaction on biodiversity loss are high. Between 1997 and 2011, the world lost
an estimated USD 4-20 trillion per year in ecosystem services owing to
land-cover change and USD 6-11 trillion per year from land degradation. Action
to halt and subsequently reverse biodiversity loss needs to be scaled up
dramatically and urgently.
Biodiversity protection is
fundamental to achieving food security, poverty reduction and more inclusive
and equitable development. There exists a strong business case for scaling up
action on biodiversity. Business impacts and dependencies on biodiversity
translate into risks to business and financial organisations, including
ecological risks to operations; liability risks; and regulatory, reputational,
market and financial risks. Acknowledging and measuring these dependencies and
impacts on biodiversity can help businesses and financial organisations manage
and prevent biodiversity-related risks, while harnessing new business
opportunities. The development of a post-2020 global biodiversity framework at
the Convention on Biological Diversity’s (CBD) 15th meeting of the Conference
of the Parties (COP15) in Kunming, China, in 2020 presents a crucial
opportunity to address this challenge.
The global framework must help
bring about the transformative changes in national goals, policies and actions
needed to avert biodiversity loss and achieve the Sustainable Development
Goals. Given the urgent need for biodiversity action, the focus of the Group of
Seven (G7) Environment Ministers’ Meeting on biodiversity in May 2019 is both
timely and welcome. Biodiversity is increasingly recognised as one of the
defining global challenges of our time. G7 leadership on biodiversity in the
run-up to CBD COP15 and beyond is vitally important. This report supports these
efforts by setting the economic and business case for the G7 and other
countries to take urgent and ambitious action to halt and reverse global
biodiversity loss. It presents a preliminary assessment of current
biodiversity-related finance flows.
10. (a) What is an invasive species? How can such a species be
a threat to the loss of global biodiversity? Illustrate with examples.
An invasive species is an organism
that causes ecological or economic harm in a new environment where it
is not native.
threaten human use of these
resources. An invasive species can be introduced to a new area via the ballast
water of oceangoing ships, intentional and accidental releases of aquaculture
species, aquarium specimens or bait, and other means.
Invasive species are capable of
causing extinctions of native plants and animals, reducing biodiversity,
competing with native organisms for limited resources, and altering habitats.
This can result in huge economic impacts and fundamental disruptions of coastal
and Great Lakes ecosystems.
Biodiversity benefits humanity in
many ways.
It helps make the global economy
more resilient, it functions as an integral part of our culture and identity,
and research has shown it’s even linked to our physical health.
However, despite its importance,
Earth’s biodiversity has decreased significantly over the last few decades. In
fact, between 1970 and 2016, the population of vertebrate species fell
by 68% on average worldwide. What’s causing this global decline?
Today’s graphic uses data from
WWF’s Living Planet Report 2020 to illustrate the biggest threats to
Earth’s biodiversity, and the impact each threat has had globally.
Measuring the loss of biodiversity
Before looking at biodiversity’s
biggest threats, first thing’s first—how exactly has biodiversity changed over
the years?
WWF uses the Living Planet Index
(LPI) to measure biodiversity worldwide. Using data from
over 4,000 different species, LPI tracks the abundance of mammals,
birds, fish, reptiles, and amphibians across the globe.
Latin America & Caribbean has
seen the biggest drop in biodiversity at 94%. This region’s drastic
decline has been mainly driven by declining reptile, amphibian, and fish
populations.
Despite varying rates of loss
between regions, it’s clear that overall, biodiversity is on the decline. What
main factors are driving this loss, and how do these threats differ from region
to region?
Across the board, changes in land
and sea use account for the largest portion of loss, making up 50% of
recorded threats to biodiversity on average. This makes sense, considering that
approximately one acre of the Earth’s rainforests is disappearing
every two seconds.
Species overexploitation is the
second biggest threat at 24% on average, while invasive species takes
the third spot at 13%.
(b) Describe Ramsar convention and its obligations.
The Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance holds the unique distinction of being the first modern
treaty between nations aimed at conserving natural resources. The signing of
the Convention on Wetlands took place in 1971 at the small Iranian town of
Ramsar. Since then, the Convention on Wetlands has been known as
the Ramsar Convention.
The Ramsar Convention's broad aims
are to halt the worldwide loss of wetlands and to conserve, through wise use
and management, those that remain. This requires international cooperation,
policy making, capacity building and technology transfer.
Under the Ramsar Convention, a wide
variety of natural and human-made habitat types ranging from rivers to coral
reefs can be classified as wetlands. Wetlands include swamps, marshes,
billabongs, lakes, salt marshes, mudflats, mangroves, coral reefs, fens, peat
bogs, or bodies of water - whether natural or artificial, permanent or
temporary. Water within these areas can be static or flowing; fresh, brackish
or saline; and can include inland rivers and coastal or marine water to a depth
of six metres at low tide. There are even underground wetlands.
The Ramsar Convention encourages
the designation of sites containing representative, rare or unique wetlands, or
wetlands that are important for conserving biological diversity. Once
designated, these sites are added to the Convention's List of Wetlands of
International Importance and become known as Ramsar sites. In designating a
wetland as a Ramsar site, countries agree to establish and oversee a management
framework aimed at conserving the wetland and ensuring its wise use. Wise use
under the Convention is broadly defined as maintaining the ecological character
of a wetland. Wetlands can be included on the List of Wetlands of International
Importance because of their ecological, botanical, zoological, limnological or
hydrological importance.
IGNOU MED 006 Free Solved
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