MED 008
GLOBALISATION AND ENVIRONMENT
Programme: MA/2021/2022
Course Code: MED 008
Max. Marks: 100
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1. Explain the effects of global warming on global climate
change.
Global warming, the gradual heating
of Earth's surface, oceans and atmosphere, is caused by human activity,
primarily the burning of fossil fuels that pump carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
Already, the consequences and
effects of global warming are measurable and visible on the planet.
"We can observe this happening
in real time in many places," Josef Werne, a professor of geology and
environmental science at the University of Pittsburgh, told Live Science.
"Ice is melting in both polar ice caps and mountain glaciers. Lakes around
the world, including Lake Superior, are warming rapidly — in some cases faster
than the surrounding environment. Animals are changing migration patterns and
plants are changing the dates of activity," such as trees budding their
leaves earlier in the spring and dropping them later in the fall.
Here is an in-depth look at the
ongoing effects of global warming.
One of the most immediate and
obvious consequences of global warming is the increase in temperatures around
the world. The average global temperature has increased by about 1.4 degrees
Fahrenheit (0.8 degrees Celsius) over the past 100 years, according to the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
Since record keeping began in 1895,
the hottest year on record worldwide was 2016, according to NOAA and NASA
data(opens in new tab). That year Earth's surface temperature was 1.78 degrees
F (0.99 degrees C) warmer than the average across the entire 20th century.
Before 2016, 2015 was the warmest year on record, globally. And before 2015?
Yep, 2014. In fact, all 10 of the warmest years on record have occurred since
2005, which tied with 2013 as the 10th-warmest year on record, according
to NOAA’s Global Climate Report 2021(opens in new tab). Rounding out the
top 6 hottest years on record across the globe are (in order of hottest to not
as hot): 2020, 2019, 2015, 2017 and 2021.
For the contiguous United States
and Alaska, 2016 was the second-warmest year on record and the 20th consecutive
year that the annual average surface temperature exceeded the 122-year average
since record keeping began, according to NOAA. Shattered heat records in
the U.S. are increasingly becoming the norm: June 2021, for example, saw the
warmest temperatures on record for that month for 15.2%of the contiguous U.S.
That's the largest extent of record warm temperatures ever recorded in the
country, according to the National Centers for Environmental
Information(opens in new tab).
As global average temperatures
warm, weather patterns are changing. An immediate consequence of global warming
is extreme weather.
These extremes come in a lot of
different flavors. Paradoxically, one effect of climate change can be
colder-than-normal winters in some areas.
Changes in climate can cause the
polar jet stream — the boundary between the cold North Pole air and
the warm equatorial air — to migrate south, bringing with it cold, Arctic air.
This is why some states can have a sudden cold snap or colder-than-normal
winter, even during the long-term trend of global warming, Werne explained.
"Climate is, by definition, the long-term average of weather, over many
years. One cold (or warm) year or season has little to do with overall climate.
It is when those cold (or warm) years become more and more regular that we start
to recognize it as a change in climate rather than simply an anomalous year of
weather," he said.
Global warming is also changing other extreme weather. According to
the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory of NOAA(opens in new
tab), hurricanes are likely to become more intense, on average, in a
warming world. Most computer models suggest that hurricane frequency will stay
about the same (or even decrease), but those storms that do form will have the
capacity to drop more rain due to the fact that warmer air holds more moisture.
2. Define flood. List at least four factors that cause flood.
A flood is an overflow of
water that submerges land that is usually dry. In the sense of
"flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of
the tide. Floods are an area of study of the discipline hydrology and
are of significant concern in agriculture, civil
engineering and public health. Human changes to the
environment often increase the intensity and frequency of flooding, for
example land use changes such as deforestation and removal of
wetlands, changes in waterway course or flood controls such as
with levees, and larger environmental issues such as climate
change and sea level rise. In particular climate
change's increased rainfall and extreme weather
events increases the severity of other causes for flooding, resulting in
more intense floods and increased flood risk.
Flooding may occur as an overflow
of water from water bodies, such as a river, lake, or ocean, in which
the water overtops or breaks levees, resulting in some of that water
escaping its usual boundaries, or it may occur due to an accumulation of
rainwater on saturated ground in an areal flood. While the size of a lake or
other body of water will vary with seasonal changes
in precipitation and snow melt, these changes in size are unlikely to
be considered significant unless they
flood property or drown domestic animals.
Floods can also occur in rivers
when the flow rate exceeds the capacity of the river channel, particularly
at bends or meanders in the waterway. Floods often cause damage
to homes and businesses if they are in the natural flood plains of rivers.
While riverine flood damage can be eliminated by moving away from rivers and
other bodies of water, people have traditionally lived and worked by rivers
because the land is usually flat and fertile and because rivers
provide easy travel and access to commerce and industry. Flooding can lead to
secondary consequences in addition to damage to property, such as long-term
displacement of residents and creating increased spread of waterborne
diseases and vector-bourne disesases transmitted by mosquitos.
Flooding is experienced all over
the globe and for a variety of reasons — but why exactly does flooding occur?
There are several human causes of flooding, including poorly designed
infrastructure. There are also natural reasons flooding happens.
Here are eight of the most common
causes of flooding, both natural and human-induced. And the consequences
of flooding can be savage.
1. Heavy Rains
The simplest explanation for
flooding is heavy rains. No matter where you live, you are surrounded by
infrastructure and systems designed to move rainwater into appropriate basins
and reservoirs. In most cases, the infrastructure does its job, and you never
have to think about where the rain goes when it runs off.
When it rains heavily, however, those
systems are overwhelmed, and that water doesn’t drain nearly as quickly as it
needs to. In short, the drainage systems back up, and the water rises —
sometimes into homes. This typically happens only in cases of sustained heavy
rains over a long period.
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2. Overflowing Rivers
You do not necessarily need to have
heavy rains to experience flooding in your area. For example, if you live along
a river and areas upstream from you experience heavy rains, it could lead to a
serious overflow where you live. Most larger rivers include a series of dams to
help manage large amounts of rainfall, and most river systems are managed by
government authorities.
Sometimes, however, those
authorities have to make tough decisions about how to operate dams. They often
can manage the water and prevent flooding altogether — but not always.
3. Broken Dams
Much of America’s infrastructure
was built in the 20th century, so it is getting old. When heavy rains come, and
water levels rise, aging dams can fail and unleash torrents of water on
unsuspecting households.
This is part of what happened after
Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans in 2005. Levees failed and made the flooding
far worse than it would have been otherwise. While we have come to depend on
20th-century architecture, and much of it does its job well, there is always a
possibility that a structure will fail.
4. Urban Drainage Basins
Many of our cities are made of
mostly concrete and other impermeable material. When you have an urban drainage
basin that is made of concrete, there is no ground for water to sink into. So,
when those drainage basins fill up, it is going to mean flooding for low-lying
areas.
This is mostly the case in large
urban areas — think Houston and Los Angeles. When heavy rains strike, the
basins used to drain them cannot always handle the load.
3. Distinguish between Sudden Disasters and Insidious
disasters. Give an example for each of them.
Disasters are increasing around the
world. Children are greatly impacted by both natural disasters (forces of nature)
and man-made (intentional, accidental) disasters. Their unique anatomical,
physiological, behavioral, developmental, and psychological vulnerabilities
must be considered when planning and preparing for disasters. The nurse or
health care provider (HCP) must be able to rapidly identify acutely ill
children during a disaster. Whether it is during a natural or man-made event,
the nurse or HCP must intervene effectively to improve survival and outcomes.
It is extremely vital to understand the medical management of these children
during disasters, especially the use of appropriate medical countermeasures
such as medications, antidotes, supplies, and equipment.
In a retrospective cohort study of
children during the 2014/2105 Ebola outbreak in Liberia and Sierra Leone (all
less than 18 years with a median age of 7 years with one-third less
than 5 years of age), the most common features upon presentation were
fever, weakness, anorexia, and diarrhea. About 20% were initially afebrile.
Bleeding was rare upon initial presentation. The overall case fatality rate was
57%. Factors associated with death included children less than 5 years of
age, bleeding at any time during hospitalization, and high viral load (Smit et
al. 2017). In another retrospective cohort study of children at two Ebola
centers in Sierra Leone in 2014 (all less than 5 years of age), presenting
symptoms included weakness, fever, anorexia, diarrhea, and cough. About 25%
were afebrile on presentation. The case fatality rate was higher in children
less than 2 years (76%) versus 2–5 years of age (46%) and 9 times
more likely to die if child had a higher viral load. Signs associated with
death included fever, emesis, and diarrhea. Interestingly, hiccups, bleeding,
and confusion were only observed in children who died (Shah et al. 2016).
Lassa virus and New World viruses
(Junin, Machupo, Sabia, and Guanarito) are transmitted from person-to-person.
The vector in nature is the rodent. The incubation period is from 5 to
16 days. The geographical distribution is West Africa and South America,
respectively. The South American hemorrhagic fevers are quite similar but
differ from Lassa fever. The onset of the South American viruses is insidious
and results in high fever and constitutional symptoms. Petechiae or vesicular
enanthem with conjunctival injection is common. These fevers are associated
with neurologic disease (hyporeflexia, gait abnormalities, and cerebellar
dysfunction). Seizures portend a poor prognosis. Mortality ranges from 15% to
over 30%. On the contrary, Lassa viruses are mild. Less than 10% of infections
result in severe disease. Signs include chest pain, sore throat, and
proteinuria.
4. Discuss the role of MNCs and TNCs in economic globalisation.
In the previous unit, we have
discussed about man-made disasters that cause serious damage to life and
property and ecological imbalances. In the present unit, we shall discuss the
role of multinational companies and trans-national corporations in the global
scenario and its impact on the quality of environment. As you know,
globalisation is leading to structural transformation of companies, creating
new dependencies. This has resulted in a situation where events, decisions and
actions in one part of the world would have significant influences on the other
parts of the world. Technological advances, revolution in Information and
Communication Technologies (ICTs), easy access to finance and labour across
geographical and national boundaries have trans-nationalised economic life. It
is estimated that about 35,000 large Multinational companies (MNCs) with over
170,000 affiliates and about 300 industrial houses account for 70% of the total
FDI (Foreign Direct Investment). Today these giant MNCs and Transnational Corporations
(TNCs) together with international financial support are in a position to
control the global markets through acquisitions and mergers. In this way, the
MNCs and TNCs spearhead the new liberal economic globalisation. In this unit we
shall deal with the increasing disparities in the current world order with
macro divisions of the world as the Global North and Global South. We also
probe into the role of TNCs in the on-going globalisation process and the
favourable mediation of International Financial Institutions on behalf of TNCs.
We examine the switch to flexible production and its impact on social and
environmental compositions as also technology concerns and environmental
standards.
In 1993, South African
photojournalist Kevin Carter took a picture depicting an emaciated Sudanese
girl struggling towards a nearby feeding center, while a vulture waited for her
to die so it could eat her. The photograph sent shock waves across the world.
Fourteen months later, Carter won the Pulitzer Prize for the photograph. Nobody
ever knew what eventually happened to the child, although at the time, the
photographer had chased the vulture away and the child had completed her trek
to the feeding center. Three months after receiving the Pulitzer Prize, Kevin
committed suicide due to depression.
The story highlights how an event
can, in no time, affect people of faraway lands. This is the world today; it is
fast and changing. People struggle against time to achieve their goals. This
struggle often leaves little room for them to think and care for other people.
And this process has been expedited by the effects of globalization
5. What is Global Environment Facility? Mention its four areas
of operation.
The Global Environment Facility
(GEF) was established on the eve of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit to assist in the
protection of the global environment and to promote environmentally sustainable
development. The Fund supports the implementation of several multilateral
environmental agreements, and serves as a financial mechanism of the UN
Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement. It is the
longest standing dedicated public climate change fund. The GEF also administers
several funds established under the UNFCCC including the Least Developed
Countries Fund (LDCF) and the Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF).
The Global Environment Facility
(GEF) was established on the eve of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit to assist in the
protection of the global environment and to promote environmentally sustainable
development. The Fund supports the implementation of several multilateral
environmental agreements, and serves as a financial mechanism of the UN
Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement. It is the
longest standing dedicated public climate change fund. The GEF also administers
several funds established under the UNFCCC including the Least Developed
Countries Fund (LDCF) and the Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF).
6. Explain any four general principles of International
Environmental Law.
Until recently, the automotive
industry's primary focus has been to reduce road transport's contribution to
urban air pollution and move towards carbon neutrality through hybrid and
alternative fuel vehicles, with electric vehicles having taken the lead. When
it comes to climate change and air quality, electric cars are clearly
preferable to petrol or diesel cars. In this article, it is examined the
international principles of environmental law briefly and the impact and
benefits of electric vehicles on environmental law.
General Principles of Environmental Law
Sovereignty and Responsibility
Principle
International environmental law has
developed between two (2) contradicting principles. First principle is that
states' have sovereign rights over their natural resources. Second, states
should not damage to the environment. However, the concept of sovereignty is
not absolute, and state's general duty is not to cause environmental damage to
the environment of other states. 1992 Rio Declaration stated that: "states
have, in accordance with principles of international law, the sovereign right
to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental and
developmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within
their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other
states or areas beyond the limits of national
jurisdiction." Therefore, In those areas beyond the limits of
national jurisdiction, such as the high seas, the applicable concept is not one
of sovereignty, but is one of common heritage of humanity. In the other words,
global property is open and its wealth cannot be appropriated by states.
The Precautionary Principle
Since scientific certainty often
comes later for politicians and lawyers to protect against environmental
danger, the burden of proof is switched. To wait for scientific proof regarding
the impact of pollutants discharged into the environment may result in
irreversible damage to the environment and human suffering. The precautionary
principle requires that, if there is a strong suspicion that a certain activity
may have environmentally harmful consequences, it is better to control that
activity now rather than to wait for incontrovertible scientific evidence. This
principle is expressed in the Rio Declaration, which stipulates in principle 15
Rio Declaration, where there are "threats of serious or irreversible
damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for
postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation."
The Prevention Principle
The pollution prevention principle
should be differentiated from the duty to avoid environmental harm. Under this
new rule, a state is under the obligation to prevent damage within its own
jurisdiction. Preventing environmental harm is cheaper, easier, and less
environmentally dangerous than reacting to environmental harm that already has
taken place. The prevention principle is the fundamental notion behind laws
regulating the generation, transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal of
hazardous waste and laws regulating the use of pesticides.
The "Polluter Pays" Principle
The "polluter pays"
principle has been a dominant concept in environmental law. A state responsible
for a violation of international law has to stop the injurious conduct which
may be a cause for damage environment and revised the condition that existed
prior to the wrongful conduct. According to this principle if the state cannot
to re-establish the condition due to its impossibility, the state should pay
compensation.
7. Explain how environment is an important agenda of World
Bank.
The World Bank Group's Environment
Strategy 2012-2022 lays out an ambitious agenda to support "green, clean,
resilient" paths for developing countries, as they pursue poverty
reduction and development in an increasingly fragile environment.
The Environment Strategy, which
covers the World Bank, International Finance Corporation (IFC), and
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), recognizes that while there
has been notable progress in reducing global poverty, there has been
significantly less progress in managing the environment sustainably. While
developing countries will still need rapid growth to reduce poverty over the
next decade, the global environment has reached a critical state that could
undermine livelihoods, productivity, and global stability.
Green
"Green" refers to a
world in which natural resources, including oceans, land, and forests, are
sustainably managed and conserved to improve livelihoods and ensure food
security. It's a world in which healthy ecosystems increase all the economic
returns from the activities they support. Growth strategies are focused on
overall wealth rather than GDP as it is currently measured. Governments pursue
regulations that encourage innovation, efficiency, sustainable budgeting, and
green growth. Biodiversity is protected as an economically critical resource.
In this world, good policies enable the private sector to use natural resources
sustainably as part of good business, creating jobs and contributing to
long-term growth.
Biodiversity continues to decline
as a result of habitat destruction and degradation. Over the past 40 years,
there have been significant declines in healthy ecosystems-e.g., forests,
mangroves, sea grass beds, coral reefs-and their flora and fauna populations,
with species loss affecting everything from fungi to insects, plants, frogs,
tigers, and gorillas. Forests have seen annual losses of 5.2 million hectares
between 2000 and 2010, despite declines in deforestation rates and increased
forest plantations. As a result, the capacity of ecosystems to provide services
such as water provisioning and flood control has declined significantly. Land
degradation is also worsening as a result of deforestation and poor
agricultural practices, with soil erosion, salinization, and nutrient depletion
contributing to desertification. Freshwater supplies are seriously stressed,
with 1.4 billion people living in river basins in which water use exceeds
recharge rates. Oceans and shared seas are also under stress from climate
change, overharvesting, pollution, and coastal development. The decline of
marine resources threatens the livelihoods of over 100 million men and women
involved in fish processing.
8. List any five multilateral initiatives on biodiversity.
The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity
2011-2020 and its Aichi Biodiversity Targets, adopted at the tenth Conference
of the Parties (COP) of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), is widely
acknowledged as a flexible universal framework for action on biodiversity, and
related contributions to sustainable development. The governing bodies of the
biodiversity-related conventions have recognised and supported the Strategic
Plan as a framework with which they might align their own strategic plans and
work activities. They have also encouraged their national focal points and
authorities (hereafter collectively referred to as NFPs) to engage in the
development and implementation of their country’s National Biodiversity
Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP). In 2011/2012, members of the United Nations
(UN) Environment Management Group (EMG), including the biodiversity-related
conventions, mapped their strategic goals and objectives against the Aichi
Biodiversity Targets. Early input to this mapping effort was provided by an
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) report for the Chairs of
the Scientific Advisory Bodies of the biodiversity-related conventions.
Thereafter this mapping effort was supplemented by conventions’ own Strategic
Plan-Aichi Biodiversity Target mapping exercises. Moreover, information on
implementation of the Aichi Biodiversity Targets by UN bodies, convention
secretariats and others is being gathered and maintained by the CBD
Secretariat. Further updates to this information could be undertaken by the
Aichi Biodiversity Targets Task Force 4 , which comprises a number of key
organisational contributors to the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, including other
biodiversity-related conventions. However, despite this work, there is
currently no coherent, up-to-date compilation of the existing guidance for
parties and other governments (hereafter collectively referred to as countries)
provided by the various conventions (through decisions or resolutions of the
governing bodies of the biodiversity-related conventions) on how to implement
actions that contribute towards the achievement of the Aichi Biodiversity Targets,
recognising that such a review might also indicate where further guidance for
countries might be valuable.
9. Discuss in general the environmental concerns of South Asia.
South Asia covers diversified
climatic zones and experiences an array of climate change impacts. Human
pressures together with changing hydrology and land resources have distinct
impact on the production of food grain and resilience of ecosystems. The most
threatened areas are grasslands and mountain forest ecosystems of the Himalayas
and ecosystems of the Sundarbans. Forests of South Asia having most
biologically diverse ecosystems on the planet are destroyed due to rapid
deforestation and urbanization. Moreover, the South Asia partake the worst air
pollution in the world, and it is maximum in India. Thar Desert is
extending at a rate of 100 ha per year which may cause damage to approximately
13,000 ha of cultivated lands and pastures in India and Pakistan. Availability
of freshwater is highly seasonal in this region, and water supplies become more
threatened by higher temperatures, changes in river regimes, and greater
incidence of coastal flooding. This article discusses major environmental
issues faced by the South Asian people particularly Bangladesh and the
resultant problems encountered by majority of people. Major environmental
issues discussed here are climate change, geophysical setting, ecosystem
changes, overgrazing, import of hazardous wastes, deforestation,
desertification, pollution, population pressure, collapse and pollution of land
resources, water resources and lack of potable water, biodiversity loss, food
security risks, depletion of energy resources, and degradation of river and
marine resources. Different problems created by mentioned environmental issues
like biodiversity loss, impacts to the marine environment, atmospheric
pollution, deficient urban structure, water scarcity and degradation, soil
erosion and land degradation, natural disaster, pests, and diseases have been
depicted in this chapter. Some recommendations have also been provided on the
basis of major environmental issues identified and resultant problems.
10. Discuss the various initiatives taken in India to protect
the wildlife of India.
The Central government has
introduced the Wildlife Protection Act (1972) which among other
things provides for creating protected areas that are meant for wildlife
protection and also enlists the punishments and penalties to be imposed for
hunting of specified fauna specified in the Schedules I to IV thereof in the Wild
Life (Protection) Act, 1972 in form of legal protection.
A Wildlife Crime Control
Bureau (WCCB) has been established for preventing illegal trade and
haunting of wildlife products including endangered species. They also ensure
coordination among the officials and the State Governments for effective
enforcement of the law.
Some organizations such
as Wildlife Institute of India, Bombay Natural History
Society, and Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural
History have undertaken research on the conservation of wildlife.
The central government also
empowered the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) in order to
apprehend and prosecute wildlife offenders, identify illegal hunters and men
involving in it under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.
The government has banned the
hunting of endangered species of the animals and the veterinary use of
diclofenac drug that has caused the rapid population decline of Gyps vulture
across the Indian subcontinent. Conservation Breeding Programmes have
been initiated to conserve these vulture species at locations such as Pinjore
(Haryana), Buxa (West Bengal), and Rani, Guwahati (Assam) by the Bombay
Natural History Society (BNHS).
A new component is known
as “Recovery of Endangered Species” has been included in Integrated
Development of Wildlife Habitats which is a centrally sponsored scheme.
The scheme has been modified by including 16 species that have been identified
for recovery viz. Snow Leopard in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, and Arunachal Pradesh, Bustard (including Floricans), Dolphin,
Hangul, Nilgiri Tahr in Tamil Nadu, Marine Turtles, Dugong, Edible Nest
Swiftlet in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Asian Wild Buffalo, Nicobar Megapode,
Manipur Brow-antlered Deer, Vultures, Malabar Civet, Indian Rhinoceros, Asiatic
Lion, Sangai Deer in Manipur, Swamp Deer and Jerdon’s Courser, where the
government has invested lakhs of rupees.
The Central government has also
established countrywide protected area networks, viz, National Parks,
Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves covering the
important habitats that have been created as per the provisions of the Wild
Life (Protection) Act, 1972 to provide better protection to wildlife, including
threatened flora and fauna and their habitat. These
networks include 730 Protected Areas including 103 National Parks,
535 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 26 Community Reserves, and 66 Conservation Reserves
in different regions.
Financial and technical assistance
is extended to the State Governments / Union Territories under various
Centrally Sponsored Schemes, viz, ‘Integrated Development of Wildlife
Habitats’, ‘Project Tiger’ and ‘Project Elephant’ for providing
better protection and conservation to wildlife along with the improvement of
their habitat. The State Governments have been requested to strengthen the
field formations and intensify patrolling in and around the Protected Areas.
11. Discuss the instances when NGO’s have conflicted
socio-political movements.
There has been a shift from the
critique of development as an ‘anti-politics’ discourse (Ferguson, 1994)
to ethnographies of development as the practice of politics in varied
social-historical circumstances (Mosse, 2013). ‘Development’ articulates
aspirations, connects to resource flows and is a site for struggles over the
terms of recognition and citizenship (ibid.). But international development
remains a discourse constituted by exclusions. One such exclusion (in India and
internationally) is caste. Inherited caste identity is an important determinant
of life opportunity in India's caste-networked economy, and a continuing aspect
of poverty, inequality and social exclusion, especially for Dalits (those
subordinated as ‘untouchable’) (Mosse, 2018). Caste has always been
pivotal in India's cultural and electoral politics (Teltumbde, 2017) but
remains marginal to mainstream development discourse, and absent from the
social characteristics of concern, such as gender, race or age, in the
Sustainable Development Goals.
Why caste is kept out of
development is a question discussed elsewhere (Mosse, 2020). This article
examines efforts in the 2000s to draw caste into the frame of international
development, reworked as the right of Dalits to development resources alongside
political rights and social justice. We consider the role of NGOs here and ask
three key questions. First, what made it possible for the hitherto excluded
vernacular politics of caste to enter and become central to NGO development
policy in the late 1990s? Second, what were the implications of this
‘Dalitization’ of development for the NGO field, especially given the
confrontation of NGOs with caste power embedded in local state bureaucracy that
a focus on Dalits and rights involved? Third, why was it difficult to sustain
the NGO policy focus on caste discrimination and Dalit rights?
We use two fieldwork cases from
Tamil Nadu, south India: one focuses on the effects of a higher-order advocacy
network for Dalit rights; the other examines grassroots activism for the
recovery of alienated Dalit land. These cases raise a fourth question: how do
NGOs combine ‘movement work’ (Alvarez, 2009) — that is networking,
coalition building, advocacy and popular protest — with the funding, reporting
or projectized relationships of ‘NGO-ing’ (Hilhorst, 2003; Lewis and
Schuller, 2017: 642)? We consider the relationship between the discursive
and the organizational relations aspects of NGO networks; between their ‘expressive’
and their ‘instrumental’ dimensions (Knutsen, 2012). While the cases
highlight instability and disarray alongside material and discursive
achievements of NGO networks, they also challenge the preconception of
donor-funded NGOs as co-opting, privatizing or depoliticizing citizen action,
acting as contractors of state or capital rather than agents of the oppressed,
as the notion of ‘NGOization’ often implies (Bornstein and Sharma, 2016;
Ismail and Kamat, 2018; Kamat, 2002, 2004). Finally, the article
indicates the importance of NGOs in addressing second-order injustice, that is
the ‘framing’ of what counts as an issue and who counts
(who can make a claim as a rights holder), and how (by what
procedures claims and contests are staged and resolved) (Fraser, 2005:
85).
We draw on research undertaken from
two different perspectives within a broader project titled ‘Caste Out of
Development’. The first traces a policy process in the world of NGO donors, in
part from participation in that world. David Mosse recalls policy work as a
donor representative in southern India in the 1990s and returns to trace a
two-decade-long institutional sequel, finding long-term shifts in NGO partner
organizations and networks. He discovers how caste became a central policy issue,
mobilizing new forms of network and public action by and for Dalits; but also
how, within little more than a decade, caste and ‘Dalit rights’ had been ousted
from policy vision again and Dalit NGO networks were in disarray. Over the
course of months between 2009 and 2012, as he sat, talked and lodged with key
leaders and members of unravelling networks in Tamil Nadu, there was every
reason for both Indian and European players in the drama to want to turn over
events and reflect on what had happened and why.
12. Discuss the main highlights of Chilka Bachao Andolan.
Chilika Bachao Andolan (Save the
Chilika Movement) was a movement by the people, mostly fishermen, who posed a
successful resistance in the early 90's to the Integrated Shrimp Farm Project (ISFP)-
a joint venture agreed upon by the Tata Iron and Steel Company and Government
of Orissa for intensive prawn cultivation and export. The project was a direct
threat to the livelihood of fishing communities living around the lake. The
fishermen were supported in their struggle by the non-fishermen (mostly farmers
but some of them also engaged in fishing), students, intellectuals, and human
rights activists.
The author in this paper comments
how civil society needs to look both back and forth- it needs to question the
state when the state becomes overbearing and at the same time it needs to
question the power equations within its own sphere. The agenda of good
governance therefore, not only includes the democratisation of the state, it
must involve the democratisation of society, as well. How effectively actors in
civil society perform this dual, albeit interrelated roles, and what
constraints their action, is the subject of this case study.
The author concludes that the case
study indicates that collective assertions by the marginalised takes place when
the state abdicates its responsibility towards them. The case illustrates how
it is not the distinction between the state and civil society but the blurring
of boundaries between the two which informs their relationship and this in turn
must inform any analysis of the interface between civil society and governance.
The author goes on to point out
that inequalities in society provide context for collective action, but
collective action is also hindered by these inequalities. It was the existing
socio-economic inequalities and their further perpetuation as a consequence of
what people perceive as wrong developmental priorities of the state which
propelled civil society in to action. However, these inequalities also limited
the scope for collective action.
13. Explain the controversy related to seed suicides by poor
Indian farmers.
Indian Biotech opponents have
attributed the increase of suicides to the monopolization of GM seeds,
centering on patent control, application of terminator technology, marketing
strategy, and increased production costs. The contentions of the biotech
opponents, however, have been criticized for a lack of transparency in their
modus operandi i.e. the use of methodology in their argumentation. The fact is,
however, that with the intention of getting the attention of those capable of
determining the future of GM cotton in India, opponents resorted to generating
controversies. Therefore, this article will review and evaluate the multifaceted
contentions of both opponents and defenders. Although the association between
seed monopolization and farmer-suicide is debatable, we will show that there is
a link between the economic factors associated with Bt. cultivation and farmer
suicide. The underlying thesis of biotech opponents becomes all the more
significant when analysed vis-Ã -vis the contention of the globalization critics
that there has been a political and economic marginalization of the Indian
farmers. Their accusation assumes significance in the context of a fragile
democracy like India where market forces are accorded precedence over farmers’
needs until election time.
In 1990, Monsanto requested
authorities to conduct field trials. The request was rejected in 1993 by
India’s Department of Biotechnology (DBT), the authority for monitoring
elementary and small-scale tests, because of the exorbitant trait fees and
presumed problems crossing an American variety with an indigenous one (Gupta
and Chandak, 2005). Instead, the DBT preferred that Bt. genes be directly
incorporated into the indigenous variety. However, in 1995, Mahyco was
permitted to conduct field trials with local varieties backcrossed with
Monsanto’s imported 100 g gene. Soon, Monsanto participated directly in
the experiment by buying a share in Mahyco in 1998 resulting in Mahyco-Monsanto
Biotech (MMB) (Gupta and Chandak, 2005; Newell 2007). In June-July
1998, before securing the DBT’s permission, MMB initiated field trials in 40
one-acre-plots in Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra and Karnataka.
The Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC) of the Department of
Environment, Forest and Wild Life (DOE) - India’s highest authority on
large-scale experimentation and commercialization – was not satisfied with the
DBT’s observations on bio-safety because the trial was allegedly conducted
during times of low pest presence; therefore, on 19 June 2001, it ordered a
repetition of the field trials.
14. What is meant by ‘Carrying Capacity’ of ecosystems? Mention
few facts related to the threat on biodiversity.
The carrying capacity of
an environment is the maximum population size of a
biological species that can be sustained by that specific
environment, given the food, habitat, water, and
other resources available. The carrying capacity is defined as
the environment's maximal load, which in population
ecology corresponds to the population equilibrium, when the number of
deaths in a population equals the number of births (as well as immigration and
emigration). The effect of carrying capacity on population
dynamics is modelled with a logistic function. Carrying capacity is
applied to the maximum population an environment can support
in ecology, agriculture and fisheries. The term carrying
capacity has been applied to a few different processes in the past before
finally being applied to population limits in the 1950s. The notion of carrying
capacity for humans is covered by the notion of sustainable population.
At the global scale, scientific
data indicates that humans are living beyond the carrying capacity of planet
Earth and that this cannot continue indefinitely. This scientific evidence
comes from many sources but is presented in detail in the Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment, in ecological
footprint accounts, or planetary
boundaries research. An early detailed examination of global limits
was published in the 1972 book Limits to Growth, which has prompted follow-up
commentary and analysis. A 2012 review in Nature by 22
international researchers expressed concerns that the Earth may be
"approaching a state shift" in its biosphere
In terms of population
dynamics, the term 'carrying capacity' was not explicitly used in 1838 by
the Belgian mathematician Pierre François Verhulst when he
first published his equations based on research on modelling population growth.
The origins of the term
"carrying capacity" are uncertain, with sources variously stating
that it was originally used "in the context of
international shipping" in the 1840s, or that it was first used
during 19th-century laboratory experiments with micro-organisms.] A 2008
review finds the first use of the term in English was an 1845 report by
the US Secretary of State to the US Senate. It then became a
term used generally in biology in the 1870s, being most developed in wildlife
and livestock management in the early 1900s. It had become a
staple term in ecology used to define the biological limits of a natural system
related to population size in the 1950s.
Five main threats
to biodiversity are commonly recognized in the programmes of work of
the Convention: invasive alien species, climate change, nutrient
loading and pollution, habitat change, and overexploitation. Unless
we successfully mitigate the impacts of these direct drivers of
change on biodiversity, they will contribute to the loss of biodiversity
components, negatively affect ecosystem integrity and hamper
aspirations towards sustainable use.
15. What are sustainable food security indicators?
Sustainable food security was
discussed in 1993 by. It was mentioned that sustainable development should
encompassed aspects of food, agriculture and people. Research done by then discussed about the importance of nature
stability in agricultural to maintain the food security. Discussions about
measurement of food security and indicator development were done by which used sustainable land resources as
indicator of sustainable food security. In 2004, Atlas of Sustainable Food
Security was published by Indicators were reconstructed from basic food
security indicators of previous publications. However, environmental indicators
were built based on ecological footprint method. It assessed deforestation,
remaining land and water resources that could be supplied by nature for future
demand. Although it can give information resources supplied by nature for
future demand, rising population and consumption of natural resources in recent
years would generate problem in assuming time remaining for the natural
supplies. For example: it is assumed that fresh water supplies will sufficient
for next five years, ‘doing business as usual’ in rising population and
consumption would bias those of information. Unsustainable process of food
fulfillment would degrade environment rapidly that we could not restrain. The
assumption of five years might turn to one year. This paper tried to
reconstruct indicators of sustainable food security, by applying eco-efficiency
as environment assessment for the whole indicators.Known as widespread use of
sustainable performance assessment tool in industries, eco-efficiency has
extended into broader scope of applications. Economic consideration of
environmental assessment in integrated index has simplified the next step of
decision making at higher management. Emerged as business link to sustainable
development, it results win-win solutions for economic and environment
performances. Industrialists can maintain the environment while enhance their revenues.
This has made it applied in broader scope of studies. As regional sustainable
assessment, eco-efficiency was applied excellently in European Union by and Finnish
region of Kymenlaakso by. In government sector, it helped sustainable
development policy makings
agricultures transportations, and
development of environmental regulation of industry areas. The difference
between micro and macro level economics is a higher concern of social aspect in
macro level. In micro level or industrial level, social aspect could be
achieved separately with eco-efficiency assessment, such as programs of
corporate social responsibility (CSR), otherwise in macro level or governmental
level, social aspect is significant in every decision made. This paper proposed
complete the triple bottom line of sustainable: economic, environment and
social in ecoefficiency performance measurement especially for macro level
applications supported with systemic approach to construct indicators and
relationships between them. This systemic approach was an extended idea of
system dynamic supported performance measurement developed by. Similar research
done by used social indicators in separated part of eco-efficiency ratio and
were not supported by systemic view of indicators relationships. That caused
lack of information of what effects, feedbacks and trade-offs between them,
even though social indicators related to economic and environment indicators
have been identified.
The systemic view of indicators
relationships helps policy maker in trade-offs considerations for every
indicator. However, some researchers argued that being eco-efficient doesn’t
mean completely sustainable. Being eco-efficient is minimizing resource and
energy used, so cost of raw material resource and risk of waste generated could
be minimized as well. Eco-efficiency has not required yet for the social
indicators of sustainable development, since it is only incorporate indicators
of economic and environment. Besides those criticisms, eco-efficiency helps
units deciding the beneficially way tobe sustainable. The more eco-efficient
activities, the more activities with environmental considerations that would
accelerate goal achievement of sustainable development . This study was done
for indicators identification of eco-efficiency on sustainable food security.
Using a systemic approach by constructing Causal Loop Diagram (CLD), complete
economic, environment and social indicators of eco-efficiency were identified.
A ‘new’ eco-efficiency indicators come up from constructing process of
relationship between existing indicators of food security in CLD. Indicators
were identified according to eco-efficiency ratio as mentioned in Eqn.
16. What are micronutrients? Describe any disease related to
deficiency of a micronutrient.
Micronutrients are nutrients that
are required by the body in lesser amounts for its growth and development. They
play a major role in the metabolic activities of the body. These include
vitamins and minerals.
Since our body cannot produce
vitamins and minerals, they are taken externally from different food products.
The micronutrient content for every food is different; therefore, it is
advisable to eat varieties of food for enough vitamin and mineral consumption.
These micronutrients help in
preventing and fighting certain diseases. However, they should be taken in
adequate quantities: excess intake or inadequate intake results in several
disorders such as visual impairment, mental retardation, etc.
Micronutrient deficiency conditions
are widespread among 2 billion people in developing and in developed countries.
These are silent epidemics of vitamin and mineral deficiencies affecting people
of all genders and ages, as well as certain risk groups. They not only cause
specific diseases, but they act as exacerbating factors in infectious and
chronic diseases, greatly impacting morbidity, mortality, and quality of life.
Deficiencies in some groups of people at special risk require supplementation,
but the most effective way to meet community health needs safely is by
population based approaches involving food fortification. These complementary
methods, along with food security, education, and monitoring, are challenges
for public health and for clinical medicine. Micronutrient deficiency
conditions relate to many chronic diseases, such as osteoporosis osteomalacia,
thyroid deficiency colorectal cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Fortification
has a nearly century long record of success and safety, proven effective for
prevention of specific diseases, including birth defects. They increase the
severity of infectious diseases, such as measles, HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis.
Understanding the pathophysiology and epidemiology of micronutrient
deficiencies, and implementing successful methods of prevention, both play a key
part in the New Public Health as discussed in this section, citing the examples
of folic acid, vitamin B12, and vitamin D.
17. List five characteristics of Environmentally Sound
Technologies (EST).
18. What is the concept behind ‘Green Business’?
Green businesses, also called
sustainable businesses, seek to balance profit with the health of the planet
and its various populations. There is a vast array of services and products
offered by businesses in this category. The degree to which sustainable practices
are embraced and implemented varies widely among them depending on many
conditions, including public awareness, the economy, the level of
industrialization, the degree of government support and regulation, and even
the age of the entrepreneurs and decision makers in a given region. That said,
the green business economy has expanded greatly in the past decade, and
continues to do so today as it is increasingly embraced by employees,
consumers, investors, and other stakeholders, especially in light of the recent
assessment of imminent threat of climate change to our planet
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency explains sustainability based on a simple principle: "Everything
that we need for our survival and well-being depends, either directly or
indirectly, on our natural environment,"and emphasizes the importance of
making sure that we have and will continue to have the water, materials, and
resources to protect human health and our environment.
According to the World Council for
Economic Development (WCED), sustainable development "meets the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs." The ideal green business applies these principles
to the entire lifecycle of a product or service, from conception to disposal.
In 2015 the United Nations Member
States adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development External that set 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
to achieve a sustainable and equitable future for both people and planet by
ending poverty, fighting inequality and tackling the urgency of climate change.
The business community is one of the major players in this effort to make this
future a reality with a great number of companies looking closely at their
impact on the environment and adopting Environmental, Social and Corporate
Governance standards, known as ESG, in a move toward ethical and sustainable
business operations. The number of certified B corporations or B Corps who meet
high environmental performance standards are on the rise. Eco-conscious
consumers and impact investors are seeking out sustainable brands and stocks
with high ESG ratings. There is an increasing push for transparency and more
scrutiny into corporate sustainability practices with significant implications
for corporations that resort to "greenwashing" and "green
marketing" tactics instead of constructive and genuine responses to
environmental issues.
This guide presents general
resources on environmentalism and green business addressing its past, present
and future. Resources on various green initiatives and sustainability guidance
are offered for selected industries: agriculture, building and design, finance,
fashion, manufacturing, and urban transportation. Also included in the guide
are resources for businesses with sustainability goals and consumers interested
in changing their lifestyles and consumption patterns with sustainability in
mind.
19. Refer to two instances during which Indian Judiciary has
played a positive role in protecting the environment.
In recent years, there has been a
sustained focus on the role played by the higher judiciary in devising and
monitoring the implementation of measures for pollution control, conservation
of forests and wildlife protection. Many of these judicial interventions have
been triggered by the persistent incoherence in policy-making as well as the
lack of capacity-building amongst the executive agencies.
Devices such as Public Interest
Litigation (PIL) have been prominently relied upon to tackle environmental
problems, and this approach has its supporters as well as critics. The main
objective behind this study made by the author is to identify the present
scenario and analyse the nature and extent of developments till date in various
environmental statuses through statutes, law, conventions and various other
issues regarding the court decisions and judicial processes.
Environment is the wellspring of
life on earth like water, air, soil, etc., and determines the presence,
development and improvement of humanity and all its activities. The concept of
ecological protection and preservation is not new. It has been intrinsic to
many ancient civilizations. Ancient India texts highlights that it is the
dharma of each individual in the society to protect nature and the term
‘nature’ includes land, water, trees and animals which are of great importance
to us. . In the ‘Atharva Veda’, the ancient Hindu Scepters stated “What of
thee I dig out let that quickly grow over”.
At the same time, new innovations
like, thermal power, atomic plant and so on without any sufficient natural
assurance pose another danger to the situations, the aftereffect of which
results in issues like global warming, climate change, acid rain, etc.
Moreover, according to pattern of Indian legislature to make a number of legislations
as opposed to addressing the reason for failure and disappointment, and passing
new bills consistently is just like ‘old wine in new bottle’. Therefore, there
arises a requirement for a comprehensive analysis of the protection of the
environment. In recent years, there has been a sustained focus on the role
played by the higher judiciary in devising and monitoring the implementation of
measures for pollution control, conservation of forests and wildlife
protection. Many of these judicial interventions have been triggered by the
persistent incoherence in policy-making as well as the lack of
capacity-building amongst the executive agencies. Devices such as Public
Interest Litigation (PIL) have been prominently relied upon to tackle
environmental problems, and this approach has its supporters as well as critics..
The word “environment” relates to
surroundings. It includes virtually everything. It can be can defined as
anything which may be treated as covering the physical surroundings that are
common to all of us, including air, space, land, water, plants and wildlife.
According to the Webster
Dictionary, it is defined as the “Aggregate of all the external condition and
influences affecting the life and development of an organism.”
The Environment (Protection) Act,
1986
Section 2(a) environment “includes
water, air and land and the inter- relationship which exists among and between
water, air and land, and human beings, other living creatures, plants,
micro-organism and property.”
Thus, after analyzing all the above
definitions, the basic idea that can be concluded is that environment means the
surroundings in which we live and is essential for our life.
Need for environmental laws
Today we are living in nuclear
arena. No one can overlook the harm caused to the environment by the nuclear
bombs, dropped by airplanes belonging to the United States on the Japanese
urban communities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki amid the last phases of World War
II in 1945. Day to day innovation and advancement of technology, apart from
development additionally expands the risk to human life. Accordingly, there
arises an intense and an acute need of the law to keep pace with the need of
the society along with individuals. So now the question of environmental
protection is a matter of worldwide concern, it is not confined to any country
or territory.
The remedies available in India for
environmental protection comprise of tortuous as well as statutory law remedies.
The tortuous remedies available are trespass, nuisance, strict liability and
negligence. The statutory remedies incorporates: Citizen’s suit, e.g.,
an activity brought under Section
19 of the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986,
an activity under area 133,
Criminal Procedure Code, 1973.and
and activity brought under the
Section 268 for open irritation, under Indian Penal Code,1860
Apart from this, a writ petition
can be filed under Article 32 in the Supreme Court of India or under Article
226 in the High Court.
20. “Right to clean environment is an inalienable part of human
right”. Explain the statement.
The right to a healthy environment
has developed gradually since the 1970s when it was first alluded to by the
1972 Stockholm Declaration. Its first Principle states: “Man has the
fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life, in an
environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being”.
The Stockholm Declaration was a
catalyst for the recognition of the right to a healthy environment at the
national and regional levels. Today, according to UN Special Rapporteur David
Boyd, the right to a healthy environment “is included in regional human rights
treaties and environmental treaties binding more than 120 States. It enjoys
constitutional protection in more than 100 States and is incorporated into the
environmental legislation of more than 100 States. In total, 155 States have
already established legal recognition of the right to a healthy and sustainable
environment.” At the national level, Portugal was the first country to
enshrine this right in its constitution, in 1976. Since then, the right to
a healthy environment has rapidly spread to other constitutions, in a fashion
unseen for any other “new” human right.
Alongside these national
instruments, States developed an important regional legal corpus affirming the
right to a healthy environment. For instance, the African Charter on Human and
Peoples’ Rights (1981) provides that “[a]ll peoples shall have the right to a
general satisfactory environment favourable to their development.” It is worth
noting that the African Charter differs from other texts in that it confers
this right not to individuals but to a group. Similarly, Article 38 of the Arab
Charter of Human Rights (2004) protects the right of each person “to a healthy
environment”. In Latin America, the Protocol of San Salvador to the American
Convention on Human Rights (1998) recognizes the right of everyone to “live in
a healthy environment”, and the Escazú Agreement (2018) further seeks to
contribute “to the protection of the right of every person of present and
future generations to live in a healthy environment”.
In the European region, the
recognition of this right is less explicit. The Aarhus Convention (1998), which
is equivalent to the Escazú Agreement, affirms in its first article “the right
of every person of present and future generations to live in an environment
adequate to his or her health and well-being”. Nevertheless, the European
Convention on Human Rights (1950), does not enshrine the right to a
healthy environment per se. Environmental issues are dealt indirectly
through the European Court of Human Rights’ innovative and dynamic
interpretation of the Convention, affording limited protection through already
recognized human rights. For instance, the Court has extended the right to
life, guaranteed by article 2, to include the right to be protected against
risk resulting from hazardous industrial activities. Similarly, the right
to private and family life enshrined in article 8 was considered to comprise a
right to be protected against serious damage to the environment. In
September 2021, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe proposed to
go further: it recommended the adoption of an additional protocol to the
European Convention on Human Rights that would enshrine, among others, the
right to a healthy environment.
The international recognition of
the right to a healthy environment is much less advanced, as up until now
States have shown reluctance to adopt a binding legal instrument recognizing
such a right. Thus, the right to a healthy environment is essentially devoid of
legal force in international environmental law. Apart from the aforementioned
Stockholm Declaration, the Rio Declaration (1992) affirmed with less ambit that
“[h]uman beings are at the center of concerns for sustainable development. They
are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature”. This
somewhat coy terminology hints towards a resistance among States to recognize
this right in the Rio Declaration.
In the face of such reluctance,
several initiatives have sought to enshrine the right to a healthy environment
in international treaties. For instance, the IUCN's Draft International
Covenant on Environment and Development (1995) provides in its article 14 that
States “undertake to achieve progressively the full realization of the right of
all persons to live in an ecologically sound environment”. More recently, the
draft Global Pact for the Environment (2017) proposed the recognition of the
right to a healthy environment in its first article
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