MPC 005 RESEARCH METHODS Solved Assignment 2021-22

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MPC 005 Solved Assignment
2021-22

Course Code: MPC 005

Assignment Code: MPC 005/ASST/TMA/2021-22

Marks: 100

NOTE: All questions are compulsory.

Section A

1. Discuss the nature, types and steps of case study. Describe the criteria and misconceptions of case studies. 

Case study provides a systematic and scientific way of perceiving or examining events, collect data, analyse information, and prepare a report. As a result the researcher may gain a sharpened understanding of why the instance happened as it did, and what might become important to look at more extensively in future research. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Case studies lend themselves to both generating and testing hypotheses.

In other words, case study should be defined as a research strategy, an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real-life context. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Case study research means single and multiple case studies, can include quantitative evidence, relies on multiple sources of evidence and benefits from the prior development of theoretical propositions. Case studies based on any evidence of quantitative and qualitative research.

Single subject-research provides the statistical framework for making inferences from quantitative case-study data. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 According to Lamnek (2005) “The case study is a research approach, situated between concrete data taking techniques and methodologic paradigms.”

In the past years, case study method was used in the field of clinical psychology to examine the patient’s previous history regarding the person’s mental health status. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 To know about the patient’s physical and mental health, and to make an accurate diagnosis, it is very important to know about the patient’s past and present health related and environmental problems and issues.

Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud used case study method to assist his subjects in solving personality problems. The detailed accounts of interviews with subjects and his interpretations of their thoughts, dreams and action provide excellent examples of case studies. Guidance counselors, social workers and other practitioners conduct case studies for diagnosing particular condition or problem and recommending remedial measures. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 They collect data from a particular individual and confine their interest to the individual as a unique case or collect data from a small group of individuals, which form a unit for depth study

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The case study approach is based on reality. Some of these studies have been conducted in school environment, which have mostly centered on behavioural problems of children. Observation, interviews, psychological tests and inventories have been used for collecting relevant data about the case or cases. However, subjective bias is a constant threat to objective data gathering and analysis techniques. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The researcher must be thoroughly familiar with the skills which are associated with the conduct of case-studies.

The Case study is also useful in psychology. It refers to the use of a descriptive research approach to obtain an in-depth analysis of a person and group. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The various techniques may be applied on the subject such as personal interviews, observation, psychometric tests, and archival records. We can use the case study method in clinical psychology to describe rare events and conditions. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Generally case study is a single-case design, but it can be a multiple-case design, where replication instead of sampling is the criterion for inclusion. One thing we must remember about the case study is that it must provide valid and reliable results for the development of future research.

For selection of cases for the case study, we often use information oriented sampling. Our cases are based on this only information, which is mostly based on the extreme cases or typical cases. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The average case is often not the richest in information. Extreme or a typical case reveals more information because they activate more basic mechanisms and more actors in the situation studied.

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In addition, from both understanding oriented and action oriented perspectives, it is often more important to clarify the deeper causes behind a given problem and its consequences, than to describe the symptoms of the problem and how frequently they occur, etc.

Random samples emphasising representativeness will seldom be able to produce this kind of insight. It is more appropriate to select a few cases for their validity, but this is not always the case. Three types of information oriented cases may be distinguished: • Critical cases 

•       Extreme or deviant cases 

•       Paradigmatic cases

Yin (2005) suggested that researchers should decide whether to do single-case or multiple-case studies and choose to keep the case holistic or have embedded sub-cases.

There are four types of case studies which are (i) illustrative case studies (ii) exploratory case studies (iii) cumulative case studies and (iv) critical instance case studies.

1)    Illustrative Case Studies: These are primarily descriptive studies. They typically utilise one or two instances of an event to show what a situation is like. Illustrative case studies serve primarily to make the unfamiliar familiar and to give readers a common language about the topic in question.

2)    Exploratory (or pilot) Case Studies: This type of case studies performed before implementing a large scale investigation. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Their basic function is to help identify questions and select types of measurement prior to the main investigation. The primary pit fall of this type of study is that initial findings may seem convincing enough to be released prematurely as conclusions.

3)    Cumulative Case Studies: These serve to aggregate information from several sites collected at different times. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The idea behind these studies is the collection of past studies will allow for greater generalisation without additional cost or time being expended on new, possibly repetitive studies.

4)    Critical Instance Case Studies: These examine one or more sites for either the purpose of examining a situation of unique interest with little to no interest in generalisability, or to call into question or challenge a highly generalised or universal assertion.  This method is useful for answering cause and effect questions.

The first step is to determine the present status of the case or cases through direct observation. In addition to physical examination of the case or cases, a psychological evaluation is required to determine the general ability level etc. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 For example, to make a case study of a ‘slow learner’, the first thing to do is to determine the present status of the child by making an assessment of his physique cognitive factors through direct observation and psychological test.

Determining the most probable antecedents of the case or cases is the next important steps. This information helps in formulating a workable hypothesis or a set of hypothesis. For example, in case of ‘slow learner’ cited in Step 1, the researcher may formulate a hypothesis that occurrence of slow learning behaviour in the child is due to unhealthy have environment, bad study habits and poor teaching in the school.

The case is then checked for the presence or absence of the antecedents supposed to apply to situation of under study. For example, the behaviour of slow learning of the child. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This involves multi-method approach, which includes observation, past history of the case, interview etc.

After the verification of the antecedents or hypothesis (es , the next step is directed towards the diagnosis of the causes (example, causes of slow learning) and suggesting remedial measures in the light of the causes.

The last step of the case study is the follow-up of the case (es) to study the impact of remedial measures. If impact is positive, the diagnosis is taken to be correct.

There is little misconception about the case study for using in research work. Flyvbjerg (2006) define five misconceptions about case study research:

1)              Generally, theoretical knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical knowledge, because one cannot generalise on the basis of an individual case and, therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development.

2)              The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building.

3)              The case study may affect the bias tendency toward verification, i.e., a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions.

4)              Some time it is difficult to summarise and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies.

2. Explain the method, steps, relevance and implications of grounded theory. Describe the types of coding in grounded theory. 

Grounded theory is a systematic methodology that has been largely, but not exclusively, applied to qualitative research conducted by social scientists. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The methodology involves the construction of hypotheses and theories through the collecting and analysis of data. Grounded theory involves the application of inductive reasoning. The methodology contrasts with the hypothetico-deductive model used in traditional scientific research.

A study based on grounded theory is likely to begin with a question, or even just with the collection of qualitative data. As researchers review the data collected, ideas or concepts become apparent to the researchers. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 These ideas/concepts are said to "emerge" from the data. The researchers tag those ideas/concepts with codes that succinctly summarize the ideas/concepts. As more data are collected, and re-reviewed, codes can be grouped into higher-level concepts, and then into categories. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 These categories may become the basis of a hypothesis or a new theory. Thus, grounded theory is quite different from the traditional scientific model of research, where the researcher chooses an existing theoretical framework, develops one or more hypotheses derived from that framework, and only then collects data for the purpose of assessing the validity of the hypotheses. 

Grounded Theory is most accurately described as a research method in which the theory is developed from the data, rather than the other way around. That makes this is an inductive approach, meaning that it moves from the specific to the more general. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The method of study is essentially based on three elements: concepts, categories and propositions, or what was originally called “hypotheses”. However, concepts are the key elements of analysis since the theory is developed from the conceptualization of data, rather than the actual data.

Strauss & Corbin, authors of “Basics of Qualitative research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques” are two of the model’s greatest advocates, and define it as follows: "The grounded theory approach is a qualitative research method that uses a systematic set of procedures to develop an inductively derived grounded theory about a phenomenon”. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The primary objective of grounded theory, then, is to expand upon an explanation of a phenomenon by identifying the key elements of that phenomenon, and then categorizing the relationships of those elements to the context and process of the experiment. In other words, the goal is to go from the general to the specific without losing sight of what makes the subject of a study unique.

Grounded theory is often perceived as a method which separates theory and data but others insist that the method actually combines the two. Data collection, analysis and theory formulation are undeniably connected in a reciprocal sense, and the grounded theory approach incorporates explicit procedures to guide this. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This is especially evident in that according to grounded theory, the processes of asking questions and making comparisons are specifically detailed to inform and guide analysis and to facilitate theorizing process. For example, it is specifically stated that the research questions must be open and general rather than formed as specific hypotheses, and that the emergent theory should account for a phenomenon that is relevant to participants.

There are three distinct yet overlapping processes of analysis involved in grounded theory from which sampling procedures are typically derived. These are: open coding, axial coding and selective coding. Open coding is based on the concept of data being “cracked open” as a means of identifying relevant categories. Axial coding is most often used when categories are in an advanced stage of development; and selective coding is used when the "core category", or central category that correlates all other categories in the theory, is identified and related to other categories.

Data collection is directed by theoretical sampling, which means that the sampling is based on theoretically relevant constructs. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Many experiments, in their early stages, use the open sampling methods of identifying individuals, objects or documents. This is so that the data’s relevance to the research question can be assessed early on, before too much time and money has been invested. In later phases, a systematic relational or variational sampling is frequently employed with the objective of locating data that either confirms the relationships between categories, or limits their applicability. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The final phase generally involves discriminate sampling, which consists of the deliberate and directed selection of individuals, objects or documents to verify the core category and the theory as a whole, as well as to compensate for other, less developed categories. Also included as necessary parts of the analysis are other procedures such as memo writing and the use of diagrams, as well as procedures for identifying and incorporating interaction and process.

Grounded theory contains many unique characteristics that are designed to maintain the "groundedness" of the approach. Data collection and analysis are consciously combined, and initial data analysis is used to shape continuing data collection. This is supposed to provide the researcher with opportunities to increase the "density" and "saturation" of recurring categories, as well as to assist in providing follow-up procedures in regards to unanticipated results. Interlacing data collection and analysis in this manner is also designed to increase insights and clarify the parameters of the emerging theory. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 At the same time, the method supports the actions of initial data collection and preliminary analyses before attempting to incorporate previous research literature. This is supposed to guarantee that the analysis is based in the data and that pre-existing constructs do not influence the analysis and/or the subsequent formation of the theory. If existing theoretical constructs are utilized, they must be justified in the data.

Grounded theory provides detailed and systematic procedures for data collection, analysis and theorizing, but it is also concerned with the quality of emergent theory. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Strauss & Corbin state that there are four primary requirements for judging a good grounded theory: 1) It should fit the phenomenon, provided it has been carefully derived from diverse data and is adherent to the common reality of the area; 2) It should provide understanding, and be understandable; 3) Because the data is comprehensive, it should provide generality, in that the theory includes extensive variation and is abstract enough to be applicable to a wide variety of contexts; and 4) It should provide control, in the sense of stating the conditions under which the theory applies and describing a reasonable basis for action.

Grounded theory offers many advantages, however because it is such a painstakingly precise method of study, it requires high levels of both experience and acumen on the part of the researcher. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 For this reason, novice researchers should avoid this method of study until they have achieved the proper qualities needed to effectively implement the approach.

Coding is the core process in classic grounded theory methodology. It is through coding that the conceptual abstraction of data and its reintegration as theory takes place. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 There are two types of coding in a classic grounded theory study: substantive coding, which includes both open and selective coding procedures, and theoretical coding. In substantive coding, the researcher works with the data directly, fracturing and analysing it, initially through open coding for the emergence of a core category and related concepts and then subsequently through theoretical sampling and selective coding of data to theoretically saturate the core and related concepts. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Theoretical saturation is achieved through constant comparison of incidents (indicators) in the data to elicit the properties and dimensions of each category (code). This constant comparing of incidents continues until the process yields the interchangeability of indicators, meaning that no new properties or dimensions are emerging from continued coding and comparison. At this point, the concepts have achieved theoretical saturation and the theorist shifts attention to exploring the emergent fit of potential theoretical codes that enable the conceptual integration of the core and related concepts to produce hypotheses that account for relationships between the concepts thereby explaining the latent pattern of social behaviour that forms the basis of the emergent theory. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The coding of data in grounded theory occurs in conjunction with analysis through a process of conceptual memoing, capturing the theorist’s ideation of the emerging theory. Memoing occurs initially at the substantive coding level and proceeds to higher levels of conceptual abstraction as coding proceeds to theoretical saturation and the theorist begins to explore conceptual reintegration through theoretical coding.

3. Elaborate the assumptions, approaches, steps, issues and implications of discourse analysis.

In order to understand, create awareness, expose and fight against the social unjust, the researcher or the critical discourse analysts takes full use of media and broadcasts. The method has the following implications for the individuals, groups, institution and society: (i) The method allows the researcher as well as the research to be an “active agent” while attempting to expose “inequality and injustice”. (ii) As the researcher critically tries to evaluate the social conditions, the method emphasises on both the structure and the social context of media texts . MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This enables the media critic to “denaturalise,” or expose the “taken-for-granted” of ideological messages as they appear in isolated speech when combined with methods of discourse analysis. (iii) The discourse analysis is also being used critically (CDA) in applied linguistics which has led to the development of a different approach to understand the messages spread by the media. (iv) With the help of critical discourse analysis language can be used as an interdisciplinary tool and can be used by scholars with various backgrounds, including media criticism. v) Undoubtedly, the method of critical discourse analysis helps in having a cross cultural study of the social activities with the help of media texts. vi) The method of critical discourse analysis critically tries to examine the dimensions of theoretical and descriptive accounts of texts.

Assumptions of Discourse Analysis: MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Theoretically discourse analysis is an interdisciplinary approach and has been widely used by special scientists and cognitive psychologists. Some of the basic assumption of this approach can be outlined as follows:

Psychologists assume that the human behaviour can only be studied with objectivity that is, without involvement of any biasness or subjectivity of the researcher as well as the subject/people under study. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 However, this has been disputed – people, including researchers, cannot be objective. A researcher is very likely to hold some position (expectation, belief or set of cultural values) Discourse Analysis when they are conducting their research.

Those expectations may be revealed while interpreting and explaining the events and experiences. The approach also assumes that, reality is socially constructed. It is assumed in a scientific research that ‘reality’ can be categorised. The constructs generally used by psychologists like – personality, intelligence and thinking are explained as real and naturally occurring categories or events. However, the assumption ignores the fact that it is language which gives a shape to the categories and constructs we use. Since language is a social and cultural thing, our sense of reality is socially and culturally constructed.

It is also assumed that, people are the result of social interaction. In the scientific approach it is assumed that many of the constructs used are ‘inner essences’. TMPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 hat is to say that personality, anxiety, drives, and so on exist somewhere within our heads and our bodies and are revealed only when the individual socially interacts with others. However, it may be the case that many of these so-called essences are actually the products of social interaction.

Approaches or Theories of Discourse Analysis: There are numerous “types” or theories of discourse analysis. The various discourses has been explained or categorised on the basis of several theories and approaches. Some of them are:

Modernism: The theorists of modernism were guided by achievement and reality based orientation. Thereby they viewed discourse as being relative to talking or way of talking. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 They emphasised that the discourse and language transformations are needed to develop new or more “accurate” words in order to describe new inventions, innovations, understandings, or areas of interest. Both language and discourse are now conceptualised as natural or real products of common sense usage or progress. Modernism gave rise to various discourses of rights, equality, freedom, and justice.

Structuralism: The structuralism theorists squabble that the human actions and social formations are related to language and discourse and they can be implicated or considered as systems of related elements. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The approach believed that the individual elements of a system only have significance when they are considered in context to the structure as a whole. The structures can be defined as self-contained, self-regulated and self-transforming entities. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 In other words, it is the structure itself that determines the significance, meaning and function of the individual elements of a system. Structuralism has made an eminent contribution to the world of language and social systems.

Postmodernism: Unlike the approaches of the modern theory, the postmodern theorists examined and investigated the variety of experience of individuals and groups and emphasised more on differences over similarities and common experiences. Postmodern researchers insisted more upon analysing discourses as texts, language, policies and practices.

Steps in Discourse Analysis: The method of discourse analysis evaluates the patterns of speech, such as how people talk about a particular subject, what metaphors they use, how they take turns in conversation, and so on. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 These analysts see speech as a performance. The analysts or the researchers of the discourse analysis believe that the speech performs an action instead of describing a specific state of affairs or specific state of mind. Much of this analysis is intuitive and reflective, but it may also involve some form of counting, such as counting instances of turn-taking and their influence on the conversation and the way in which people speak to others. The researchers collect and interpret information in the following steps:

(i)              Target orientation: First of all, the analysts need to know their target or focus of study. Since the beginning, they need to think about the ways by which they will analyse and interpret data after collecting the information.

(ii)            Significance of data: Once the relevant information is collected, the researchers need to judge or examine the value of the collected data, especially those which may have come from more than one source.

(iii)           Interpretation of the data: As the research progresses the analyst needs to try to understand and interpret the data so that the researchers as well as others can gain an understanding of what is going on.

(iv)           Analysis of the findings: Finally, the researcher needs to undertake the mechanical process of analysing, interpreting and summarising the data collected. On the basis of the analysis of the information, the findings can be summarised and concluded. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 There are many qualitative analysis programs available to social researchers that can be used for a variety of different tasks. For example, software could locate particular words or phrases; make lists of words and put them into alphabetical order; insert key words or comments; count occurrences of words or phrases or attach numeric codes. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 With the help of the software, the analysts or the researcher can retrieve text, analyse text and build theories. Although a computer can undertake these mechanical processes, it cannot think about, judge or interpret qualitative data.

Relevance/ Implications/ Significance of the Discourse Analysis: With the usage of talks, languages and texts the analysts or the researchers can easily understand the connotations behind historical events as well as current social practices. Some of the other relevance or significance of this approach are:

Discourse analysis enable us to understand the conditions behind a specific “problem” and make us realise that the essence of that “problem”

Discourse Analysis helps us in gaining a comprehensive view of the “problem” and helps ourselves to relate with that “problem”.

It helps the researcher in understanding hidden motivations within ourselves and researchers as well and therefore enable us to solve concrete problems.

Though critical thinking about and analysis of situations/texts is as ancient as mankind or philosophy itself, and no method or theory as such.

It helps in meaningful interpretation of the people and the world.

It also aids in “deconstructing” concepts, belief-systems, or generally held social values and assumptions.

Section B

4. Explain the methods of estimating reliability. 

Reliability is a measure of the consistency of a metric or a method. Every metric or method we use, including things like methods for uncovering usability problems in an interface and expert judgment, must be assessed for reliability.

In fact, before you can establish validity, you need to establish reliability. Here are the four most common ways of measuring reliability for any empirical method or metric:

•        inter-rater reliability  test-retest reliability

•        parallel forms reliability

•        internal consistency reliability

Because reliability comes from a history in educational measurement (think standardized tests), many of the terms we use to assess reliability come from the testing lexicon. But don’t let bad memories of testing allow you to dismiss their relevance to measuring the customer experience.

These four methods are the most common ways of measuring reliability for any empirical method or metric.

Inter-Rater Reliability: The extent to which raters or observers respond the same way to a given phenomenon is one measure of reliability. Where there’s judgment there’s disagreement.

Even highly trained experts disagree among themselves when observing the same phenomenon. Kappa and the correlation coefficient are two common measures of interrater reliability. Some examples include:

Evaluators identifying interface problems: Experts rating the severity of a problem For example, we found that the average inter-rater reliability[pdf] of usability experts rating the severity of usability problems was r = .52. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 You can also measure intra-rater reliability, whereby you correlate multiple scores from one observer. In that same study, we found that the average intra-rater reliability when judging problem severity was r = .58 (which is generally low reliability).

Test-Retest Reliability: Do customers provide the same set of responses when nothing about their experience or their attitudes has changed? You don’t want your measurement system to fluctuate when all other things are static.

Have a set of participants answer a set of questions (or perform a set of tasks). Later (by at least a few days, typically), have them answer the same questions again. When you correlate the two sets of measures, look for very high correlations (r > 0.7) to establish retest reliability.

As you can see, there’s some effort and planning involved: you need for participants to agree to answer the same questions twice. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Few questionnaires measure test-retest reliability (mostly because of the logistics), but with the proliferation of online research, we should encourage more of this type of measure.

Parallel Forms Reliability: Getting the same or very similar results from slight variations on the question or evaluation method also establishes reliability. One way to achieve this is to have, say, 20 items that measure one construct (satisfaction, loyalty, usability) and to administer 10 of the items to one group and the other 10 to another group, and then correlate the results. You’re looking for high correlations and no systematic difference in scores between the groups.

5. Explain the different types of variables. 

Researchers and statisticians use variables to describe and measure the items, places, people or ideas they are studying. Many types of variables exist, and you must choose the right variable to measure when designing studies, selecting tests and interpreting results. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 A strong understanding of variables can lead to more accurate statistical analyses and results. In this article, we describe the types of variables and answer some frequently asked questions.

Variables are things you measure, manipulate and control in statistics and research. All studies analyze a variable, which can describe a person, place, thing or idea. A variable's value can change between groups or over time. For example, if the variable in an experiment is a person's eye color, its value can change from brown to blue to green from person to person.

An independent variable is a singular characteristic that the other variables in your experiment cannot change. Age is an example of an independent variable. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Where someone lives, what they eat or how much they exercise are not going to change their age. Independent variables can, however, change other variables. In studies, researchers often try to find out whether an independent variable causes other variables to change and in what way.

A dependent variable relies on and can be changed by other components. A grade on an exam is an example of a dependent variable because it depends on factors such as how much sleep you got and how long you studied. Independent variables can influence dependent variables, but dependent variables cannot influence independent variables. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 For example, the time you spent studying (dependent) can affect the grade on your test (independent) but the grade on your test does not affect the time you spent studying.

An intervening variable, sometimes called a mediator variable, is a theoretical variable the researcher uses to explain a cause or connection between other study variables— usually dependent and independent ones. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 They are associations instead of observations. For example, if wealth is the independent variable, and a long life span is a dependent variable, the researcher might hypothesize that access to quality healthcare is the intervening variable that links wealth and life span.

Control or controlling variables are characteristics that are constant and do not change during a study. They have no effect on other variables. Researchers might intentionally keep a control variable the same throughout an experiment to prevent bias. For example, in an experiment about plant development, control variables might include the amounts of fertilizer and water each plant gets. These amounts are always the same so that they do not affect the plants' growth.

Extraneous variables are factors that affect the dependent variable but that the researcher did not originally consider when designing the experiment. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 These unwanted variables can unintentionally change a study's results or how a researcher interprets those results. Take, for example, a study assessing whether private tutoring or online courses are more effective at improving students' Spanish test scores. Extraneous variables that might unintentionally influence the outcome include parental support, prior knowledge of a foreign language or socioeconomic status.

6. Discuss the various types of validity. 

Validity is how researchers talk about the extent that results represent reality. Research methods, quantitative or qualitative, are methods of studying real phenomenon – validity refers to how much of that phenomenon they measure vs. how much “noise,” or unrelated information, is captured by the results.

Validity and reliability make the difference between “good” and “bad” research reports. Quality research depends on a commitment to testing and increasing the validity as well as the reliability of your research results.

Any research worth its weight is concerned with whether what is being measured is what is intended to be measured and considers the ways in which observations are influenced by the circumstances in which they are made.

The basis of how our conclusions are made play an important role in addressing the broader substantive issues of any given study.

For this reason we are going to look at various validity types that have been formulated as a part of legitimate research methodology.

Face validity is how valid your results seem based on what they look like. This is the least scientific method of validity, as it is not quantified using statistical methods.

Face validity is not validity in a technical sense of the term.  It is concerned with whether it seems like we measure what we claim.

Content validity is whether or not the measure used in the research covers all of the content in the underlying construct (the thing you are trying to measure).

This is also a subjective measure, but unlike face validity we ask whether the content of a measure covers the full domain of the content. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 If a researcher wanted to measure introversion, they would have to first decide what constitutes a relevant domain of content for that trait.

A construct represents a collection of behaviors that are associated in a meaningful way to create an image or an idea invented for a research purpose. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Construct validity is the degree to which your research measures the construct (as compared to things outside the construct).

Depression is a construct that represents a personality trait which manifests itself in behaviors such as over sleeping, loss of appetite, difficulty concentrating, etc.

Internal validity refers to the extent to which the independent variable can accurately be stated to produce the observed effect.

If the effect of the dependent variable is only due to the independent variable(s) then internal validity is achieved. This is the degree to which a result can be manipulated.

External validity refers to the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized beyond the sample. Which is to say that you can apply your findings to other people and settings.

Statistical conclusion validity is a determination of whether a relationship or co-variation exists between cause and effect variables.

Criterion-related validity (also called instrumental validity) is a measure of the quality of your measurement methods.  The accuracy of a measure is demonstrated by comparing it with a measure that is already known to be valid.

7. Describe the importance and types of hypotheses. 

A hypothesis is used to explain a phenomenon or predict a relationship in communication research. There are four evaluation criteria that a hypothesis must meet. First, it must state an expected relationship between variables. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Second, it must be testable and falsifiable; researchers must be able to test whether a hypothesis is truth or false. Third, it should be consistent with the existing body of knowledge. Finally, it should be stated as simply and concisely as possible.

Formulating a hypothesis requires a specific, testable, and predictable statement driven by theoretical guidance and/or prior evidence. A hypothesis can be formulated in various research designs. In experimental settings, researchers compare two or more groups of research participants to investigate the differences of the research outcomes.

Hypothesis is an assumption that is made on the basis of some evidence. This is the initial point of any investigation that translates the research questions into a prediction. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 It includes components like variables, population and the relation between the variables. A research hypothesis is a hypothesis that is used to test the relationship between two or more variables.

It shows a relationship between one dependent variable and a single independent variable. For example – If you eat more vegetables, you will lose weight faster. Here, eating more vegetables is an independent variable, while losing weight is the dependent variable.

It shows the relationship between two or more dependent variables and two or more independent variables. Eating more vegetables and fruits leads to weight loss, glowing skin, reduces the risk of many diseases such as heart disease, high blood pressure and some cancers.

It shows how a researcher is intellectual and committed to a particular outcome. The relationship between the variables can also predict its nature. For example- children aged four years eating proper food over a five-year period are having higher IQ levels than children not having a proper meal. This shows the effect and direction of effect.

It is used when there is no theory involved. It is a statement that a relationship exists between two variables, without predicting the exact nature (direction) of the relationship.

It provides the statement which is contrary to the hypothesis. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 It’s a negative statement, and there is no relationship between independent and dependent variables. The symbol is denoted by “HO”.

Associative hypothesis occurs when there is a change in one variable resulting in a change in the other variable. Whereas, causal hypothesis proposes a cause and effect interaction between two or more variables.

8. Discuss the types, advantages and limitations of factorial research design.

Factorial designs are extremely useful to psychologists and field scientists as a preliminary study, allowing them to judge whether there is a link between variables, whilst reducing the possibility of experimental error and confounding variables. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The factorial design, as well as simplifying the process and making research cheaper, allows many levels of analysis. As well as highlighting the relationships between variables, it also allows the effects of manipulating a single variable to be isolated and analyzed singly.

Advantage of Factorial Design: Factorial design enables the researcher to manipulate and control two or more independent variables simultaneously. By this design, we can study the separate and combined effect of number of independent variables. Factorial design is more precise than single factor design (Kerlinger, 2007). MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 By factorial design we can find out the independent or main effect of independent variables and interactive effect of two or more independent variables. The experimental results of a factorial experiment are more comprehensive and can be generalised to a wider range due to the manipulation of several independent variables is one experiment.

Limitation of Factorial Design: Sometimes, especially when we have more than three independent variables each with three or more levels are to be manipulated together, the experimental setup and statistical analysis become very complicated. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 In factorial experiments when the number of treatment combinations or treatments become large, it becomes difficult for the experimenter to select a homogeneous group.

Types of Factorial Design: Factorial experiments may be conducted either within subject or between subject. A mixed factorial design is also used in psychology. A mixed factorial design is one that has at least one within subject variable and at least one between subject variable.

(i)              Within Subject Factorial Design – In an experiment by Godden & Baddeley (1975), researcher wants to study the effect of context on memory. They hypothesised that memory should be better when the condition at test are more similar to the conditions experienced during learning.

(ii)            Between Subject Factorial Design – A between subject factorial design is presented in the following table. The example is 2×2 design. Separate groups of six experience each condition, thus requiring 24 subjects to get six responses to each of four conditions.

(iii)           Mixed Factorial Design – Some time the researcher uses mixed factorial design. Researcher has two independent variable A and B. Variable A is the within subject variable and variable B is the between subject variable. Subject either experiences B1, once with

A1 and also with A2; or they experience B2 once with A1 and also with A2

Section C

9.      Content of research report. 

The research report should ordinarily start with a statement of the problem selected for investigation. The reporter should introduce the background and nature of the problem under investigation.

Although quite a few times the study might be posing a simple empirical question about human behaviour or might be directed toward a practical problem or some policy-issue, the researcher must place the question or the issue into a larger, theoretical or practical context. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This helps the readers to appreciate why the problem is of a general significance and theoretic import.

10.  Objectivity safeguards in research process. 

Objectivity in social research is the principle drawn from positivism that, as far as is possible, researchers should remain distanced from what they study so findings depend on the nature of what was studied rather than on the personality, beliefs and values of the researcher. IGNOU MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 It consists of procedural safeguards, standardization, operationalization and avoiding of bias.

11.  Types of constructs. 

Construct, also called hypothetical construct or psychological construct, in psychology, a tool used to facilitate understanding of human behaviour. All sciences are built on systems of constructs and their interrelations. The natural sciences use constructs such as gravity, temperature, phylogenetic dominance, tectonic pressure, and global warming. Likewise, the behavioral sciences use constructs such as conscientiousness, intelligence, political power, self-esteem, and group culture.

12.  Quota sampling. 

Quota sampling is defined as a non-probability sampling method in which researchers create a sample involving individuals that represent a population. Researchers choose these individuals according to specific traits or qualities. IGNOU MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 They decide and create quotas so that the market research samples can be useful in collecting data. These samples can be generalized to the entire population. The final subset will be decided only according to the interviewer’s or researcher’s knowledge of the population.

13.  Advantages and disadvantages of survey research. 

Surveys are one of the most inexpensive methods of gathering quantitative data that is currently available. Some questionnaires can be self-administered, making it a possibility to avoid in-person interviews.

The risk of receiving a dishonest answer is lower when you use anonymous surveys, but it does not disappear entirely. Some people want to help researchers come to whatever specific conclusion they think the process is pursuing. 

14.  Differences between Ex-post Facto and Experimental research. 

Ex post facto designs are different from true experiments because ex post facto designs do not use random assignment. IGNOU MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 True experiments have random assignment because you're looking at something else. In ex post facto, you are looking at a prior variable present in the participant.

In an ex post facto design, you are not randomly assigning people to an experimental group or control group. You are purposefully putting people in a particular group based on some prior thing they have. I say 'thing' because it could be 'must have glasses,' or 'must be overweight.' There is no limit to the ways you could divide up the population.

15.  Criteria for a good research design. 

A good research design should always fulfill the following four conditions; objectivity, reliability, validity and generalizability of the findings.

Once the research problem is formulated, a specific topic is assigned and the hypothesis is formulated, the next stage is to work out a research design. Preparing research design is an important stage in the process of conducting a research. IGNOU MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Kerlinger defines a research design as “the plan, structure and strategy of investigation purporting to answer research questions and control variance.”

16.  Quasi-experimental research design. 

Like a true experiment, a quasi-experimental design aims to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between an independent and dependent variable.

However, unlike a true experiment, a quasi-experiment does not rely on random assignment. Instead, subjects are assigned to groups based on non-random criteria.

Quasi-experimental design is a useful tool in situations where true experiments cannot be used for ethical or practical reasons.

17.  Advantages of correlational research design . 

Correlational research can help us understand the complex relationships between a lot of different variables. If we measure these variables in realistic settings, then we can learn more about how the world really works. IGNOU MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This type of research allows us to make predictions, and can tell us if two variables are not related, and thus searching for a causeeffect relationship between the two is a huge waste of time.

18.  Ethnography.

Ethnographic fieldwork, carried out according to the method of long-term participantobservation, is what defines social anthropology. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The method is inductive and openended. As such, the method directs the anthropologist to study that which is of significance to the community studied rather than test a number of hypotheses formulated in advance of the fieldwork. Anthropology is a comparative discipline, seeking to unravel the complexity and variety of human understanding and human social and cultural life.

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Those students who had successfully submitted their Assignments to their allocated study centres can now check their Assignment Status. Along with assignment status, they can also checkout their assignment marks & result. MPC 005 Solved Assignment 2021-22 All this is available in an online mode. After submitting the assignment, you can check you IGNOU Assignment Status only after 3-4 weeks. It might take 40 days to declare.

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