MPCE 011 PSYCHOPATHOLOGY Solved Assignment 2021-22

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MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22

SECTION – A

1. Compare and contrast the humanistic approach and behavioural approach in explaining abnormal behavior.

Behaviorism and humanism are two psychological perspectives on human behavior. Most psychologists agree that no perspective is hundred-percent correct and that all have their own weaknesses and strengths. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Behaviorism and humanism are two such psychological perspectives. This article aims to compare and contrast behaviorism and humanism.

Behaviorism emphasizes the importance of observable actions and scientific studies and suggests that behavior is shaped by the environment. Humanism, on the other hand, emphasizes the study of the whole person and inner feelings.

Behaviorism is a psychological approach that uses scientific and objective methods of investigation to analyze human and animal psychology. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This approach focuses on observable actions, i.e., behaviors, of humans and animals. Stimulus and response are a key concept in behaviorism. Here, stimuli are environmental factors and responses are observable behavior. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Moreover, behaviorism studies observable stimulus-response behaviors, and emphasizes all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment.

Humanism or humanistic psychology is a psychological approach that stresses on the study of the whole individual, and behavior related to an individual’s inner feelings and self-image. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This perspective is based on the idea that each person is unique and has the free will to change his or her life at any given time. Moreover, humanism rose to prominence in the 1960s as a response to the limitations of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and behaviorism.

According to this perspective, human beings are responsible for their own happiness and well-being. They have the innate capacity for self-actualization, which is their unique desire to achieve the highest potential as human beings. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Furthermore, humanisms believe that human beings are innately good and that their deviations from this natural tendency result in mental and social problems. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Besides, humanistic psychologists analyze human behavior through the eyes of the observer, as well as through the eyes of the person that is being analyzed. This is a special feature of humanism.

Unlike other psychological approaches, humanistic approach emphasized that human beings are different from animals since they are capable of thought, reason and language. Humanism also rejects a rigorous scientific approach to psychology as it does not have the ability to capture the importance of conscious experiences. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 It relied on qualitative research methods like open-ended questionnaires, individual observations, unstructured interviews, etc.

In brief, behaviorism is a psychological approach that emphasizes the importance of observable actions and scientific studies and suggests that the environment shapes behavior. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Humanism approach, on the other hand, emphasizes the study of the whole person and inner feelings. When we compare and contrast beahviorism and humanism, we can observe that these two perspectives have more differences than similarities.

Behavioral and humanistic approaches both have ways of helping us to understand and treat abnormal behaviors. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Behaviorism and humanistic are similar because both concepts are about understanding why we as humans do the things that we do and what causes us to do the things that we do. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Mentality comes into play when both approaches are studied. Behaviorism and humanistic differ more than that they are similar though. Behaviorism

Behaviorism is based on the assumptions that behavior is learned and that behavior can be changed. Learning through conditioning such as classical and operant is another focus of behaviorism. Behaviorism also focuses on what can be observed. “Behaviorism believes that stimuli and an individual’s environment play an important part of how someone behaves (Nolen-Hoeksema,  Comparison and Contrast Behaviorism and humanistic are based on assumptions. They both deal with human behaviors on various levels. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Free will is thrown into play in both behaviorism and humanistic. Behaviorism has no use for free will unlike humanism that does. Humanism rejects the possibility of scientific aspects and behaviorism embraces it.

Humanism and behaviorism are important schools in the field of psychology, as such, knowing the difference between humanism and behaviorism is essential for anyone interested in psychology. Psychology, the scientific study of the human mental processes and behavior, has a number of approaches that are also considered as schools of psychology. These have been essential for the development of the field of psychology. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Two such schools are humanism and behaviorism. Each approach presents a unique way of understanding the human mind and behavior. Simply defined, behaviorism pays attention to the external behavior of humans and ignores the mental processes which are unobservable. Humanism, on the other hand, looks at the individual as a whole. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The main difference between humanism and behaviorism, the two schools of thought, is hence the change of direction from external behavior to the entire being. This article will attempt to describe these two approaches and highlight the differences.

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Behaviorism is a school of thought that emerged in the 1920s. Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson and B.F Skinner are some prominent figures who were responsible for the growth of behaviorism . It was concerned about the external behaviour of individuals and ignored the significance of the mind as it could not be observed. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 They believed behavior to be objective, observable and as a response of an organism to stimuli that paved way for the understanding of human psychology. Behaviourists gave prominence to laboratory research and were focused on empiricism. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Behaviorism is based on the main assumptions of determinism, experimentalism, optimism, anti-mentalism and the idea of nurture against nature.

When speaking of behaviorism the theories of classical conditioning by Pavlov and Operant conditioning of Skinner are significant. Classical conditioning explains that some learning can be due to involuntary emotional and psychological responses. Operant conditioning, on the other hand, involves the conditioning of voluntary, controllable behaviours. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The behaviourists highlight that human behaviour is learnt and can be changed through reinforcement and punishment.

Unlike behaviorism humanism uses a different approach to psychology where they look at the individual as a whole. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 They believed that all humans are unique and are free agents who have the ability to achieve their innate potential to the fullest. When looking at the individual, they prefer to adopt the point of view of the person within the situation rather than the point of view of the observer. In counselling, this is also referred to as empathy that is where the observer would get into the perspective of the person who is facing the situation.

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are some of the prominent figures in this school of thought and have made a massive contribution to its development. Specifically Maslow’s hierarchy of needs presents an image of the individual as having the ability to reach a level of self-actualization that is the highest form that an individual can achieve. However, in order to get to this, humans have to acquire certain needs, namely, biological needs, safety needs, love and belonging needs, self-esteem needs and finally self-actualization. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Another significant theory is the person-centred theory by Carl Rogers, that is used in counselling. It presents an image of the individual as an innately positive person. The theory explains of a concept of self that is made up of the individual’s real self and ideal self. Rogers believes that when these two selves are close to one another and are in congruence, it creates a positive condition for self-development . As you can see, the focus of humanism is different from that of behaviorism

2. Discuss the etiology and treatment of phobic disorder.

Genetic and environmental factors can cause phobias. Children who have a close relative with an anxiety disorder are at risk of developing a phobia. Distressing events, such as nearly drowning, can bring on a phobia. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Exposure to confined spaces, extreme heights, and animal or insect bites can all be sources of phobias.

When a person has a phobia, they will often shape their lives to avoid what they consider to be dangerous. The imagined threat is greater than any actual threat posed by the cause of terror.

Phobias are diagnosable mental disorders.

The person will experience intense distress when faced with the source of their phobia. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This can prevent them from functioning normally and sometimes leads to panic attacks.

In the United States, approximately 19 million people have phobias.

The term ‘phobia’ is often used to refer to a fear of one particular trigger. However, there are three types of phobia recognized by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 These include:

Specific phobia: This is an intense, irrational fear of a specific trigger.

Social phobia, or social anxiety: MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This is a profound fear of public humiliation and being singled out or judged by others in a social situation. The idea of large social gatherings is terrifying for someone with social anxiety. It is not the same as shyness.

Agoraphobia: This is a fear of situations from which it would be difficult to escape if a person were to experience extreme panic, such being in a lift or being outside of the home. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 It is commonly misunderstood as a fear of open spaces but could also apply to being confined in a small space, such as an elevator, or being on public transport. People with agoraphobia have an increased risk of panic disorder.

Specific phobias are known as simple phobias as they can be linked to an identifiable cause that may not frequently occur in the everyday life of an individual, such as snakes. These are therefore not likely to affect day-to-day living in a significant way.

Social anxiety and agoraphobia are known as complex phobias, as their triggers are less easily recognized. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 People with complex phobias can also find it harder to avoid triggers, such as leaving the house or being in a large crowd.

A phobia becomes diagnosable when a person begins organizing their lives around avoiding the cause of their fear. It is more severe than a normal fear reaction. People with a phobia have an overpowering need to avoid anything that triggers their anxiety.

These usually develop before the age of 4 to 8 years. In some cases, it may be the result of a traumatic early experience. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 One example would be claustrophobia developing over time after a younger child has an unpleasant experience in a confined space.

Phobias that start during childhood can also be caused by witnessing the phobia of a family member. A child whose mother has arachnophobia, for example, is much more likely to develop the same phobia.

More research is needed to confirm exactly why a person develops agoraphobia or social anxiety. Researchers currently believe complex phobias are caused by a combination of life experiences, brain chemistry, and genetics.

They may also be an echo of the habits of early humans, leftover from a time in which open spaces and unknown people generally posed a far greater threat to personal safety than in today’s world.

Collectively, phobic disorders (including social anxiety disorder [social phobia], specific phobia, and agoraphobia) are the most common forms of psychiatric illness, surpassing the rates of mood disorders and substance abuse. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Severity can range from mild and unobtrusive to severe and can result in incapacity to work, travel, or interact with others.

Specific phobias are an overwhelming and unreasonable fear of objects or situations that pose little real danger but provoke anxiety and avoidance. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Unlike the brief anxiety you may feel when giving a speech or taking a test, specific phobias are long lasting, cause intense physical and psychological reactions, and can affect your ability to function normally at work, at school or in social settings.

Specific phobias are among the most common anxiety disorders, and not all phobias need treatment. But if a specific phobia affects your daily life, several therapies are available that can help you work through and overcome your fears — often permanently.

A specific phobia involves an intense, persistent fear of a specific object or situation that's out of proportion to the actual risk. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 There are many types of phobias, and it's not unusual to experience a specific phobia about more than one object or situation. Specific phobias can also occur along with other types of anxiety disorders.

If you have a specific phobia, consider getting psychological help, especially if you have children. Although genetics likely plays a role in the development of specific phobias, repeatedly seeing someone else's phobic reaction can trigger a specific phobia in children.

Phobias are fears sparked by certain situations that can interfere with a person's coping abilities or lead them to stay away altogether. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 These situations are not normally dangerous or frightening, but people with phobias experience strong feelings of anxiety when they find themselves in these environments. 1 in 10 people will experience phobias at some point in their lives. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 These individuals can be calm and rational most of the time, yet find themselves paralyzed with fear when they are faced with a particular situation.

Many kids (and adults, too) are afraid of the same things that children with phobias fear. But the difference between a “normal” fear and a phobia is the degree of anxiety involved, and the length of time that a high level of anxiety persists. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 A child with a phobia has a high level of anxiety and dread—and even abject terror—when he comes into contact with the object of their phobia. If a child has a phobia, he experiences this level of fear for a period of six months or more.

A phobia is a type of anxiety disorder, a condition that activates the “fight or flight” response and creates feelings of imminent danger that are out of proportion to the reality of the situation. Kids can develop anxiety disorders for many reasons, including:

·       biological factors:  The brain has special chemicals, called neurotransmitters, that send messages back and forth to control the way a person feels. Serotonin and dopamine are two important neurotransmitters that, when “out of whack,” can cause feelings of anxiety.
 

·       family factors: Anxiety and fear can be inherited. Just as a child can inherit a parent’s brown hair, green eyes and nearsightedness, a child can also inherit that parent’s tendency toward excessive anxiety. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 In addition, anxiety may be learned from family members and others who are noticeably stressed or anxious around a child. For example, a child whose parent shows immense fear of spiders may learn to fear spiders, too.

 

·       environmental factors: A traumatic experience (such as a divorce, illness or death in the family) or even just a major life event like the start of a new school year may also trigger the onset of an anxiety disorder.r

3. Explain generalized anxiety disorder with a case study. Discuss the etiology.

The exact cause of Generalized Anxiety Disorder is not fully understood. The current hypothesis is that neurotransmitters including serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine levels fluctuate, causing patients psychological state to change. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The patient in the case study reported many clinical symptoms that can be misinterpreted for musculoskeletal deficits. Physical therapy cannot directly cure anxiety, since it is thought to be caused by neurotransmitters within the brain. However, physical therapists can help those who suffer from GAD be aware of their anxiety. The purpose of this case report is to report how physical therapy can’t cure GAD; however it can help reduce physical signs and symptoms associated with GAD. Generalized Anxiety Disorder affects 3.1% of the U.S population. GAD is characterized by constant and excessive worrying, for at least six months or more. GAD can be considered a primary or secondary disorder, depending on the time of onset. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Diagnosis at a young age is considered a primary disorder, and secondary is normally diagnosed later in life and is associated with other disorders. GAD is most often associated with other disorders that involve anxiety and depression and can lead to or worsen pre-existing conditions. Many of the bodies systems can be affected by GAD, including: Cardiopulmonary, Musculoskeletal, Gastrointestinal and Neurological systems. This disorder can manifest in several ways, incorporating physical, behavioral, and cognitive characteristics.

A 28 year-old Caucasian female presents to the clinic with complaints of joint pain (arthralgia) and intermittent low back pain. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Patient cannot recall any mechanism of injury. She reports she has trouble falling asleep at night and is unable to get a good night’s rest. She often feels "restless" or "on edge", which she associates with not sleeping. She states she constantly worries about her performance in school, her family, and her mother’s health, who has recently been diagnosed with Stage IV Small Cell Carcinoma. Patient also states she wakes up at night with throbbing headaches that last for a couple hours. She feels tense the majority of the day, causing her to feel stiff. She also has difficulty paying attention in class and finishing her homework.

Phil is a 67-year-old male who reports that his biggest problem is worrying.  He worries all of the time and about “everything under the sun.”  For example, he reports equal worry about his wife who is undergoing treatment for breast cancer and whether he returned his book to the library.  MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 He recognizes that his wife is more important than a book, and is bothered that both cause him similar levels of worry.  Phil is unable to control his worrying.  Accompanying this excessive and uncontrollable worry are difficulty failing asleep, impatience with others, difficulty focusing at work, and significant back and muscle tension.  Phil has had a lifelong problem with worry, recalling that his mother called him a “worry wart.”  His worrying does wax and wane, and worsened when his wife was recently diagnosed with breast cancer.

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is purported to start in early childhood but concerns about attenuation of anxiety symptoms over time and the development of emerging cognitive and emotional processing capabilities pose multiple challenges for accurate detection. This paper presents the first known case reports of very young children with GAD to examine these developmental challenges at the item level. BMPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Three children, five-to-six years of age, were assessed with the Diagnostic Infant and Preschool Assessment twice in a test-retest reliability study. One case appeared to show attenuation of the worries during the test-retest period based on caregiver report but not when followed over two years. The other two cases showed stability of the full complement of diagnostic criteria. IGNOU MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The cases were useful for demonstrating that the current diagnostic criteria appear adequate for this developmental period. The challenges of accurate assessment of young children that might cause missed diagnoses are discussed. Future research on the underlying dysregulation of negative emotionality and long-term follow-ups are needed to better understand the etiology, treatment, and course of GAD in this age group.

In the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-5) [1], generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is described in a seemingly contradictory fashion in the sense that most adults who are diagnosed report that they have felt anxious all of their lives but the onset of the disorder is rare prior to adolescence. IGNOU MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This incongruity suggests either that GAD onset in early childhood is rare and the anxiety symptoms manifested by individuals prior to adolescence will evolve later into GAD, or that GAD onset in early childhood is common and detection of GAD during this age is complicated by developmental challenges. Chief among these developmental challenges may be the stability of symptom manifestations. In Egger et al.’s (2006) survey of two-to-five-year-old children, test-retest reliability kappa for GAD when assessed one week apart was 0.39, which was the second lowest among 12 disorders assessed [2]. They found significant attenuation of the diagnosis by the second interview for six disorders, and the largest effect for attenuation was found for GAD (Odds Ratio = 1.8), but no details were provided about which criterion may have contributed to this low stability of the diagnosis.

Other developmental challenges include that the types of worries required in criterion A (i.e., excessive worry about a number of things) may be different compared to older youths and adults. Young children may be more likely to seek excessive reassurance than to ruminate about other types of worries [3]. Their young age and dependence on caregivers may make their worries indistinguishable from separation anxiety disorder [4]. IGNOU MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Young children do not attend work or school, so their worries may necessarily focus more on family and peers. In addition, the number of worries required in criterion A may be fewer compared to adults. Young children live within smaller social contexts, so they may have a fewer number of worries compared to older populations [5, 6]. To date, these have only been speculations and have not been supported with data from actual diagnosable cases in very young children.

Whether to include uncontrollability as a criterion is also relevant because, in contrast to the DSM-5, the International Classification of Disease definition does not require uncontrollability. IGNOU MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The requirement of uncontrollability in criterion B is highly internalized and may be difficult to detect by caregivers. The capacities for self-reflection and meta-cognition are just emerging at seven years of age [7]. IGNOU MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 These emerging capacities may also make it challenging to detect the concomitant physiological symptoms of anxiety required in criterion C.

Despite the developmental challenges, recent research suggests that GAD does exist as a distinct and differentiated form in very young children. In a random population sample of 1,110 two- and three-year-old children, researchers used confirmatory factor analysis to test whether anxiety symptoms aggregated in a manner consistent with the taxonomy of GAD, obsessive compulsive disorder, separation anxiety disorder, and social phobia [8]. IGNOU MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The data significantly fit the model of these four disorders; however a limitation was that the measure of anxiety symptoms did not include a comprehensive list of all GAD items.

Identifying GAD at an early age may be important because it has been shown for some psychiatric disorders that childhood onset portends a worse prognosis compared to adult onset. For example, childhood onset of conduct disorder [9] or schizophrenia [10] predicts more persistent and more impairing problems compared to adolescent or adult onset of those disorders. In a retrospective analysis of adult patients with GAD, researchers empirically demonstrated a bimodal age of onset at 24 years, but they did not examine earlier possible onsets in childhood [11]. IGNOU MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 In one of the few studies to examine differences in GAD based on age cohorts in childhood and adolescence, researchers found few differences on GAD symptom patterns in seven-to-nine-year-old children compared to ten-to-fourteen-year-old children [12]. However, the researchers did not ask about the age of onset of the symptoms for the two groups.

Identifying GAD at an early age may also be important for treatment advances because there may be different underlying or associated factors of the GAD phenotype at different ages. For example, recent research has suggested that anxiety sensitivity may be an important predictor of symptom chronicity. Anxiety sensitivity refers to the fear of experiencing anxiety and the belief that experiencing anxiety will lead to harmful social and physical consequences. In a prospective follow-up of 277 adolescents, those with elevated anxiety sensitivity were more likely to have high and increasing GAD symptoms over time [13]. IGNOU MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Furthermore, in a meta-analysis of nine domains of emotional competence, significant moderating effects of age were found in two of the domains [14]. Younger children had more difficulty recognizing others’ emotions whereas older children tended to use more externalizing coping strategies. These age differences may be potential targets for treatment advances in young children accurately identified to suffer from GAD.

There are only two known case reports of children six years and younger with GAD symptoms. A two-year-old child expressed worries about dirt, damage to her toys, and the fact that she would get hurt in the bathtub. IGNOU MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 These appeared uncontrollable as she could not forget about them enough to have fun in other activities. She manifested the criteria of concomitant physiological symptoms with irritability and restlessness [15]. A six-year-old boy woke several times during the night ruminating about whether he had injured a classmate the day prior [16]. Other worries included potential harm to himself or animals and that a favorite toy might melt in the car. IGNOU MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 He had clear elements of uncontrollability and concomitant physiological symptoms of fatigue and restlessness. Neither of these cases included formal examinations of the stability of symptoms.

Two treatment studies have been conducted with very young anxious children but GAD was mixed with other anxiety disorders [4, 17]. One assessment study has been conducted with two- to five-year-old children to describe differences of children with GAD compared to selective mutism, but test-retest stability of diagnoses was not tested and details at the item level of GAD were not described [18].  IGNOU MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The aim of this paper was to present the first series of cases of children six years and younger with potential GAD with a comprehensive diagnostic instrument that was administered twice in a test-retest reliability study to examine the short-term stability in detail at the criterion level.

 

SECTION – B

 

4. Explain the role of parenting styles and inadequate communication in the causation of psychopathology

Developmental psychologists have long been interested in how parents affect child development. However, finding actual cause-and-effect links between specific actions of parents and later behavior of children is very difficult.

Some children raised in dramatically different environments can later grow up to have remarkably similar personalities. IGNOU MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Conversely, children who share a home and are raised in the same environment can grow up to have very different personalities.

Despite these challenges, researchers have posited that there are links between parenting styles and the effects these styles have on children. And some suggest these effects carry over into adult behavior.

In the 1960s, psychologist Diana Baumrind conducted a study on more than 100 preschool-age children. IGNOU MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Using naturalistic observation, parental interviews, and other research methods, she identified some important dimensions of parenting.1

These dimensions include disciplinary strategies, warmth and nurturing, communication styles, and expectations of maturity and control. Based on these dimensions, Baumrind suggested that the majority of parents display one of three different parenting styles. Later research by Maccoby and Martin suggested adding a fourth parenting style. Each of these has different effects on children's behavior.

In this style of parenting, children are expected to follow the strict rules established by the parents. Failure to follow such rules usually results in punishment. Authoritarian parents don't explain the reasoning behind these rules. IGNOU MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 If asked to explain, the parent might simply reply, "Because I said so."

While these parents have high demands, they are not very responsive to their children. They expect their children to behave exceptionally and not make errors, yet they provide very little direction about what their children should do or avoid in the future. Mistakes are punished, often quite harshly, yet their children are often left wondering exactly what they did wrong.

Baumrind says these parents "are obedience- and status-oriented, and expect their orders to be obeyed without explanation." IGNOU MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 They are often described as domineering and dictatorial. Their approach is "spare the rod, spoil the child." They expect children to obey without question.

 Like authoritarian parents, those with an authoritative parenting style establish rules and guidelines that their children are expected to follow. However, this parenting style is much more democratic.

Authoritative parents are responsive to their children and willing to listen to questions. These parents expect a lot of their children, but they provide warmth, feedback, and adequate support. When children fail to meet the expectations, these parents are more nurturing and forgiving rather than punishing.

Baumrind says these parents "monitor and impart clear standards for their children’s conduct. They are assertive, but not intrusive and restrictive. Their disciplinary methods are supportive, rather than punitive. They want their children to be assertive as well as socially responsible, and self-regulated as well as cooperative."

Permissive parents, sometimes referred to as indulgent parents, make very few demands of their children. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 These parents rarely discipline their children because they have relatively low expectations of maturity and self-control.​

According to Baumrind, permissive parents "are more responsive than they are demanding. They are nontraditional and lenient, do not require mature behavior, allow considerable self-regulation, and avoid confrontation." Permissive parents are generally nurturing and communicative with their children, often taking on the status of a friend more than that of a parent.

5. Provide the clinical picture of autism spectrum disorder.

Autism spectrum disorder is a condition related to brain development that impacts how a person perceives and socializes with others, causing problems in social interaction and communication. The disorder also includes limited and repetitive patterns of behavior. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The term "spectrum" in autism spectrum disorder refers to the wide range of symptoms and severity.

Autism spectrum disorder includes conditions that were previously considered separate — autism, Asperger's syndrome, childhood disintegrative disorder and an unspecified form of pervasive developmental disorder. Some people still use the term "Asperger's syndrome," which is generally thought to be at the mild end of autism spectrum disorder.

Autism spectrum disorder begins in early childhood and eventually causes problems functioning in society — socially, in school and at work, for example. Often children show symptoms of autism within the first year. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 A small number of children appear to develop normally in the first year, and then go through a period of regression between 18 and 24 months of age when they develop autism symptoms.

While there is no cure for autism spectrum disorder, intensive, early treatment can make a big difference in the lives of many children.

Some children show signs of autism spectrum disorder in early infancy, such as reduced eye contact, lack of response to their name or indifference to caregivers. Other children may develop normally for the first few months or years of life, but then suddenly become withdrawn or aggressive or lose language skills they've already acquired. Signs usually are seen by age 2 years.

Each child with autism spectrum disorder is likely to have a unique pattern of behavior and level of severity — from low functioning to high functioning.

Some children with autism spectrum disorder have difficulty learning, and some have signs of lower than normal intelligence. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Other children with the disorder have normal to high intelligence — they learn quickly, yet have trouble communicating and applying what they know in everyday life and adjusting to social situations.

Because of the unique mixture of symptoms in each child, severity can sometimes be difficult to determine. It's generally based on the level of impairments and how they impact the ability to function.

Below are some common signs shown by people who have autism spectrum disorder.

Autism, or autism spectrum disorder (ASD), first described in 1943 (Kanner, 1943), is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impairments in social interaction and communication, along with repetitive or stereotyped patterns of behaviors and often restricted interests.

The diagnosis of ASD is typically made during childhood, based on comprehensive behavioral evaluations by specialists in child psychiatry or psychology or by those in behavioral and developmental pediatrics. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 ASD was not officially recognized until DSM-III, the third edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, in 1980 (APA, 1980; Kanner, 1943). The current version of the DSM introduced in 2013, DSM-5, is the first edition of the DSM to use the term “autism spectrum disorder.” This version does not distinguish subtypes such as “autistic disorder” or “Asperger syndrome,” and the diagnostic criteria specified in the DSM-5 for ASD are somewhat narrower than used previously. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 DSM-5 criteria require that a child has persistent impairment in social communications and interactions across multiple contexts as well as restricted or repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities; that symptoms should present in early childhood and cause significant functional impairments; and that the impairments are not better explained by intellectual disability (APA, 2013).

6. Analyze the psychological factors in the causation of obsessive compulsive disorder.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder is characterized by elevated anxiety caused by uncontrollable and intrusive thoughts called obsessions, and repetitive, ritualistic behaviors called compulsions (March & Mulle, 1998). Children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) cannot stop their worrying and anxiety. Obsession themes may include contamination, harming oneself or others, aggression, sexual misconduct, religiosity, forbidden thoughts, symmetry urges, and the need to tell, ask, or confess (March & Mulle). Compulsions take the form of overt behavioral acts, rituals or covert mental acts (e.g. silently counting). MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Compulsions may also include washing, repeating, checking, touching, counting, ordering/arranging, hoarding and praying (March & Mulle). Compulsions function to reduce the anxiety associated with the child’s or adolescent’s obsessions (American Psychological Association [APA], 2000). MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 For example, a child with contamination obsessions may experience intrusive thoughts about catching a disease from touching a surface and then compulsively wash his or her hands for extended periods to lessen fears about being contaminated.

OCD, while very similar for children and adults, has several developmental differences (Swedo, Rapoport, Leonard, Lenane & Cheslow, 1989). The adult with OCD often recognizes that their behavior is abnormal and problematic. However, due to undeveloped cognitive abilities, children with OCD may not understand that their behaviors are unreasonable. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Individuals with OCD experience distress when their compulsions cannot be completed. In children, this distress may manifest as tantrums or angry outbursts. Furthermore, children may not be able to specify the consequence of not engaging in their compulsions and may report a vague sense that “something bad might happen” if they are not able to complete the compulsion (Barrett, Farrell, Pina, Peris & Piacentinit, 2008).

With an estimated lifetime prevalence of 2.5% in adults and 1 to 2% in children and adolescents, OCD is a fairly common psychiatric disorder. Onset is most frequently between six and 15 years of age in males and between 20 and 29 years of age for females (APA, 2000). The impairment caused by OCD is significant. Because compulsions serve as the primary coping mechanism, children and adolescents with OCD experience increasing levels of distress and will respond by increasing the intensity and/or magnitude of their compulsions. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Thus, these youth may spend more and more time engaging in their rituals. The child’s dependence on their ineffective coping mechanism, in turn, interferes with school, work and social functioning. Accordingly, children with OCD may be reluctant to attend school for fear of embarrassment, and they often withdraw from social activities. Children and adolescents with OCD also possess a higher risk for comorbid anxiety disorders (e.g., social anxiety and panic disorder) and depression. While symptoms may fluctuate, the overall trend in symptom severity increases over the lifetime (APA).

7. Discuss the treatment for major depressive disorder.

Sadness is a natural part of the human experience. People may feel sad or depressed when a loved one passes away or when they’re going through a life challenge, such as a divorce or serious illness.

These feelings are normally short-lived. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 When someone experiences persistent and intense feelings of sadness for extended periods of time, then they may have a mood disorder such as major depressive disorder (MDD).

MDD, also referred to as clinical depression, is a significant medical condition that can affect many areas of your life. It impacts mood and behavior as well as various physical functions, such as appetite and sleep.

MDD is one of the most common mental health conditions in the United States. Data suggests that more than 7 percent of U.S. adults experienced a major depressive episode in 2017.

Some people with MDD never seek treatment. However, most people with the disorder can learn to cope and function with treatment. Medications, psychotherapy, and other methods can effectively treat people with MDD and help them manage their symptoms.

Your doctor or a mental health professional can make a diagnosis of major depressive disorder based on your symptoms, feelings, and behaviors.

Typically, you’ll be asked certain questions or given a questionnaire so they can better determine if you have MDD or another diagnosis.

To be diagnosed with MDD, you need to meet the symptom criteria listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). This manual helps medical professionals diagnose mental health conditions.

MDD is often treated with medication and psychotherapy. Some lifestyle adjustments can also help ease certain symptoms.

People who have severe MDD or who have thoughts of harming themselves may need to stay in a hospital during treatment. Some might also need to take part in an outpatient treatment program until symptoms improve.

Treating Major Depressive Disorder: A Quick Reference Guide is a synopsis of the American Psychiatric Association’s Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients With Major Depressive Disorder, Third Edition, Part A of which was originally published in The American Journal of Psychiatry in October 2010 and is available through American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The psychiatrist using this Quick Reference Guide (QRG) should be familiar with the full-text practice guideline on which it is based. The QRG is not designed to stand on its own and should be used in conjunction with the full-text practice guideline. For clarification of a recommendation or for a review of the evidence supporting a particular strategy, the psychiatrist will find it helpful to return to the full-text practice guideline.

8. Describe the characteristic features and types of delusional disorder

Delusional disorder, previously called paranoid disorder, is a type of serious mental illness — called a “psychosis”— in which a person cannot tell what is real from what is imagined. The main feature of this disorder is the presence of delusions, which are unshakable beliefs in something untrue. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 People with delusional disorder experience non-bizarre delusions, which involve situations that could occur in real life, such as being followed, poisoned, deceived, conspired against, or loved from a distance. These delusions usually involve the misinterpretation of perceptions or experiences. In reality, however, the situations are either not true at all or highly exaggerated.

People with delusional disorder often can continue to socialize and function quite normally, apart from the subject of their delusion, and generally do not behave in an obviously odd or bizarre manner. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This is unlike people with other psychotic disorders, who also might have delusions as a symptom of their disorder. In some cases, however, people with delusional disorder might become so preoccupied with their delusions that their lives are disrupted.

Although delusions might be a symptom of more common disorders, such as schizophrenia, delusional disorder itself is rather rare. Delusional disorder most often occurs in middle to late life.

There are different types of delusional disorder based on the main theme of the delusions experienced. The types of delusional disorder include:

·       Erotomanic. Someone with this type of delusional disorder believes that another person, often someone important or famous, is in love with him or her. The person might attempt to contact the object of the delusion, and stalking behavior is not uncommon.

·       Grandiose. A person with this type of delusional disorder has an over-inflated sense of worth, power, knowledge, or identity. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The person might believe he or she has a great talent or has made an important discovery.

·       Jealous. A person with this type of delusional disorder believes that his or her spouse or sexual partner is unfaithful.

·       Persecutory. People with this type of delusional disorder believe that they (or someone close to them) are being mistreated, or that someone is spying on them or planning to harm them. It is not uncommon for people with this type of delusional disorder to make repeated complaints to legal authorities.

·       Somatic. A person with this type of delusional disorder believes that he or she has a physical defect or me

As with many other psychotic disorders, the exact cause of delusional disorder is not yet known. Researchers are, however, looking at the role of various genetic, biological, and environmental or psychological factors.

·        Genetic. The fact that delusional disorder is more common in people who have family members with delusional disorder or schizophrenia suggests there might be a genetic factor involved. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 It is believed that, as with other mental disorders, a tendency to develop delusional disorder might be passed on from parents to their children.

·        Biological. Researchers are studying how abnormalities of certain areas of the brain might be involved in the development of delusional disorders. An imbalance of certain chemicals in the brain, called neurotransmitters, also has been linked to the formation of delusional symptoms. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Neurotransmitters are substances that help nerve cells in the brain send messages to each other. An imbalance in these chemicals can interfere with the transmission of messages, leading to symptoms.

·        Environmental/psychological. Evidence suggests that delusional disorder can be triggered by stress. Alcohol and drug abuse also might contribute to the condition. People who tend to be isolated, such as immigrants or those with poor sight and hearing, appear to be more vulnerable to developing delusional disorder.

SECTION – C

9. Neurotic anxiety

in psychoanalytic theory, anxiety that originates in unconscious conflict and is maladaptive in nature: It has a disturbing effect on emotion and behavior and also intensifies resistance to treatment. Neurotic anxiety contrasts with realistic anxiety about an external danger or threat and with moral anxiety, which is guilt posited to originate in the superego.

10.Asperger syndrome

Asperger syndrome (AS), also known as Asperger's, is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by significant difficulties in social interaction and nonverbal communication, along with restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior and interests.R It is an autism spectrum disorder (ASD), but differs from other ASDs by relatively unimpaired language and intelligence. Although not required for diagnosis, physical clumsiness and unusual use of language are common. Signs usually begin before two years of age and in many cases never resolve.

11.Panic attack

A panic attack is a brief episode of intense anxiety, which causes the physical sensations of fear. These can include a racing heartbeat, shortness of breath, dizziness, trembling and muscle tension. Panic attacks occur frequently and unexpectedly and are often not related to any external threat. A panic attack can last from a few minutes to half an hour. However, the physical and emotional effects of the attack may last for a few hours. 

12.Aversion therapy

Aversion therapy, sometimes called aversive therapy or aversive conditioning, is used to help a person give up a behavior or habit by having them associate it with something unpleasant.

Aversion therapy is most known for treating people with addictive behaviors, like those found in alcohol use disorder. Most research has been focused on its benefits relating to substance use.

This type of therapy is controversial and research is mixed. Aversion therapy isn’t often a first-line treatment and other therapies are preferred.

How long the therapy lasts for has also been criticized, as outside of the therapy, relapse may occur.

13.Covert sensitization

Covert sensitization was first described in the mid-1960s by psychologist Joseph Cautela as a new treatment for people who engage in undesirable behaviors. In the past 30 years it has been researched as a treatment for alcoholism, smoking, obesity, and various sexual deviations including pedophilia and exhibitionism.

Covert sensitization discourages people from engaging in unwanted behaviors by creating an association between those behaviors and an unpleasant consequence. Because of this, it is classified as a type of aversion therapy.

14.Kinds of paranoia

Paranoia is the irrational and persistent feeling that people are ‘out to get you’ or that you are the subject of persistent, intrusive attention by others. This unfounded mistrust of others can make it difficult for a person with paranoia to function socially or have close relationships. Paranoia may be a symptom of a number of conditions, including paranoid personality disorder, delusional (paranoid) disorder and schizophrenia. 

15.Diagnostic features of narcissistic personality disorder

Narcissistic personality disorder — one of several types of personality disorders — is a mental condition in which people have an inflated sense of their own importance, a deep need for excessive attention and admiration, troubled relationships, and a lack of empathy for others. But behind this mask of extreme confidence lies a fragile self-esteem that's vulnerable to the slightest criticism.

16.Dissociative amnesia

Dissociative amnesia is a condition in which a person cannot remember important information about his or her life. This forgetting may be limited to certain specific areas (thematic), or may include much of the person’s life history and/or identity (general).

Dissociative amnesia is one of a group of conditions called “dissociative disorders.” Dissociative disorders are mental illnesses in which there is a breakdown of mental functions that normally operate smoothly, such as memory, consciousness or awareness, and identity and/or perception.

17.Diagnostic criteria of schizoid personality disorder

Schizoid personality disorder (SPD) is a chronic and pervasive condition characterized by social isolation and feelings of indifference toward other people. Those who live with this disorder are often described as distant or withdrawn and tend to avoid social situations that involve interaction with other people.

They find it difficult to express emotions and lack the desire to form close personal relationships. This type of personality disorder is believed to be relatively rare and tends to affect more men than women. People with schizoid personality disorder are also at risk of experiencing depression.

18. Clinical picture of children with PTSD

Assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) begins with clinical interviews of the child and the caregiver. The interviewer should be aware that caregivers may also be involved in abuse.

For many reasons, the traumatic experience itself is not openly discussed. Parents may be unaware of or in denial of the traumatic event, and children may be afraid to disclose what happened to them

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Those students who had successfully submitted their Assignments to their allocated study centres can now check their Assignment Status. Along with assignment status, they can also checkout their assignment marks & result. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 All this is available in an online mode. MPCE 011 Solved Assignment 2021-22 After submitting the assignment, you can check you IGNOU Assignment Status only after 3-4 weeks. It might take 40 days to declare.

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