MPCE 031 ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOR Solved Assignment 2021-22

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MPCE 031 Solved Assignment 2021-22

Section A

1. Elaborate the nature, meaning, antecedents, outcomes and measurement of job satisfaction.

The claim that high levels of engagement can enhance organizational performance and individual well-being has not previously been tested through a systematic review of the evidence. To bring coherence to the diffuse body of literature on engagement, the authors conducted a systematic synthesis of narrative evidence involving 214 studies focused on the meaning, antecedents and outcomes of engagement. MPCE 031 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The authors identified six distinct conceptualizations of engagement, with the field dominated by the Utrecht Group's ‘work engagement’ construct and measure, and by the theorization of engagement within the ‘job demands–resources’ framework. Five groups of factors served as antecedents to engagement: psychological states; job design; leadership; organizational and team factors; and organizational interventions. Engagement was found to be positively associated with individual morale, task performance, extra-role performance and organizational performance, and the evidence was most robust in relation to task performance. However, there was an over-reliance on quantitative, cross-sectional and self-report studies within the field, which limited claims of causality. To address controversies over the commonly used measures and concepts in the field and gaps in the evidence-base, the authors set out an agenda for future research that integrates emerging critical sociological perspectives on engagement with the psychological perspectives that currently dominate the field.

It is almost 25 years since Kahn (1990) published his seminal paper on ‘personal engagement’ with work, arguing that employees choose whether to invest themselves fully and authentically in their role on the basis of their experiences within the working environment. MPCE 031 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Since that time, interest in engagement has mushroomed, leading to the development of a bewildering multiplicity of definitions, measures, conceptualizations and theories of engagement (Macey and Schneider 2008).

Arguably, engagement has become one of the most significant concepts in the management field in recent years (Crawford et al. 2014), yet, to date, there has been no systematic review that brings together and synthesizes the evidence-base relating to engagement. MPCE 031 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This is concerning in light of the fact that, within the practitioner community, engagement has caught the interest of policy-makers and employers keen to find new ways of leveraging high levels of performance. Large numbers of consultancy firms now offer services such as employee engagement surveys, and there are widely cited case studies purporting to show how raised levels of engagement can lead to organizational profitability and competitiveness. In the absence of a systematic review, it is uncertain whether this advice is appropriate.

To address these issues, the aim of this paper is to present the findings of a narrative evidence synthesis that focuses on the following three questions: (1) how has engagement been defined and theorized; (2) what antecedents are associated with engagement, and (3) what evidence is there that engagement is associated with employee morale and performance?

First, we explain the methodological approach adopted for the evidence synthesis. MPCE 031 Solved Assignment 2021-22 We then outline the findings relating to the meanings and definitions of engagement, and analyse the implications of these. Next, we summarize the theoretical frameworks used to ‘explain’ engagement within the literature. In the following sections, we report on the findings relating to the antecedents and outcomes of engagement. Finally, we reflect on the state of engagement research and indicate directions for future study.

This review used a narrative evidence synthesis method adopting the guidelines established by Briner and Denyer (2012), adhering to the principles of organization, transparency, replicability, quality, credibility and relevance. MPCE 031 Solved Assignment 2021-22 We followed the five steps outlined by Briner and Denyer (2012) of: planning; structured search; evaluating material against agreed eligibility criteria; analysis and thematic coding; and reporting. Narrative synthesis is regarded as an effective way to identify the story underpinning a disparate body of evidence by giving reviewers the flexibility to develop themes that bring coherence to that data (Briner and Denyer 2012; Popay et al. 2006). MPCE 031 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The topic of engagement is one that might be considered as now having reached a sufficient stage of maturity to warrant a narrative review in order to synthesize the current evidence-base and provide a foundation for advancing knowledge in the field (Jones and Gatrell 2014, p. 260).

Using an open search approach, an initial scan of the literature produced 712,550 items from diverse sources. First, we developed an inclusive long string of relevant search terms drawn from different disciplinary fields, which was then refined using the CIMO framework (Denyer and Tranfield 2009). MPCE 031 Solved Assignment 2021-22 This requires scrutiny of the research questions in relation to the Context in which evidence has been gathered; the Interventions being evaluated/tested; the Mechanisms through which the intervention is expected to create outcomes, and the Outcomes themselves in terms of observable effects. MPCE 031 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Using this framework enabled the production of a short search string that was piloted on three databases: Business Source Complete; International Bibliography for the Social Sciences; and Scopus. At this stage, we confined the search to items written in English and published after 1990, when Kahn's article on engagement was published. MPCE 031 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The pilot search produced 5295 items.

We sought advice from experts, which led to a revision of the search string to ‘employee engagement’ OR ‘staff engagement’ OR ‘job engagement’ OR ‘organi* engagement’ OR ‘personal engagement’ OR ‘team engagement’ OR ‘psychological engagement’ OR ‘work* engagement OR medical engagement’, and narrowing the search to abstracts only. We included two further databases, Zetoc and Nexis, to minimize publication bias (Patterson et al. 2007). MPCE 031 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Our search strategy was enhanced by citation tracking, scanning reference lists, endnotes and footnotes for additional materials not identified by the databases, and tracking new publication alerts.

The structured search took place in October 2013, producing a total of 7932 items of literature from the five databases, which were imported into Refworks. Using the ‘close de-duplication’ function within Refworks reduced this number to 5771 items for the sifting stage of the review, along with three research monographs on engagement.

The abstracts were first sifted independently by two members of the research team using a pro forma that set out quality and relevance thresholds, using a bespoke database developed in Excel Professional Plus 2010. A kappa rating was calculated from the results of pilot sifts using all six reviewers from the team. Only when a score of 0.75 was achieved, indicating ‘substantial agreement’ (Viera and Garrett 2005, p. 361) was each member of the team then randomly assigned an equal share of the 5771 items. Items were included for further analysis when they were published in peer-reviewed journals, in English, dated post-1990, involved the study of employees, or were theoretical items relevant to the definition of engagement. MPCE 031 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Where there was disagreement between the two reviewers, a third team member was involved. At this stage, 3121 items were excluded on the basis of being non-peer-reviewed or not relevant, and a further 2047 duplicates were removed, along with eight items not in the English language, leaving 603 items to be considered for data extraction.

The abstracts of each of these were reviewed again by two members of the project team using quality and relevance criteria agreed in advance in order to minimize selection bias (Briner and Denyer 2012). Of these, 389 were excluded on grounds of quality or relevance. This left 214 items. The full text version of these items was sourced and downloaded into a shared Dropbox folder. A data extraction form was devised to record the evaluation of items, and each item was read in full by one team member, who completed the data extraction form. MPCE 031 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The data extraction forms were then checked for potential errors or bias by the lead author responsible for writing up each section of the evidence synthesis. A Prisma (‘preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses’) flowchart summarizes the evidence synthesis process (Liberati et al. 2009).

2. Explain the characteristics of the field of OB today.

“Organisational behaviour is a subset of management activities concerned with understanding, predicting and influencing individual behaviour in organisational setting.”—Callahan, Fleenor and Kudson.

“Organisational behaviour is a branch of the Social Sciences that seeks to build theories that can be applied” to predicting, understanding and controlling behaviour in work organisations.”—Raman J. Aldag.

“Organisational behaviour is the study and application of knowledge about how people act within an organisation. It is a human tool for human benefit. MPCE 031 Solved Assignment 2021-22 It applies broadly to the behaviour of people in all types of organisation.”— Newstrom and Davis.

“Organisational behaviour is directly concerned with the understanding, production and control of human behaviour in organisations.”—Fred Luthans.

“Organisational behaviour is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structure have on behaviour within the organisations for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organization’s effectiveness.”—Stephens P. Robbins.

Organisational behaviour is generally confused with organisational theory, organisational psychology, and human resource management. MPCE 031 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Organisational psychology restricts itself to psychological factors only whereas organisational behaviour considers and combines all the branches of study e.g. Science, technology, economics, anthropology, psychology and so on and so forth.

Organisational behaviour is the basis of human resource management and development. The former is concept oriented whereas the latter is concerned with the technology of human development. The variables influencing human development are scientifically studied under organisational behaviour.

Human resource management, is activated, directed and channelized by the application of the knowledge of organisational behaviour which has become a field of study, research and application for the development of human resources and the organisation as a whole. MPCE 031 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Thus, we can say that all these terms are interrelated but not synonymous with each other.

Organisational behaviour is that part of whole management which represents the behavioural approach to management. MPCE 031 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Organisational behaviour has emerged as a distinct field of study because of the importance of human behaviour in organisations.

Human behaviour is generally taken in terms of cause and effect relationship and not in philosophical terms. It helps in predicting the behaviour of individuals. It provides generalizations that managers can use to anticipate the effect of certain activities on human behaviour.

Organisational behaviour encompasses the study of three levels of analysis namely individual behaviour, inter-individual behaviour and the behaviour of organisations themselves. MPCE 031 Solved Assignment 2021-22 The field of organisational behaviour embraces all these levels as being complementary to each other.

Organisational behaviour is a science as well as an art. The systematic knowledge about human behaviour is a science and the application of behavioural knowledge and skills is an art. Organisational behaviour is not an exact science because it cannot exactly predict the behaviour of people in organisations. MPCE 031 Solved Assignment 2021-22 At best a manager can generalize to a limited extent and in many cases, he has to act on the basis of partial information.

Organisational behaviour consists of a body of theory, research and application which helps in understanding the human behaviour in organisation. All these techniques help the managers to solve human problems in organisations.

Organisational behaviour creates an atmosphere whereby both organisation and individuals are benefitted by each other. MPCE 031 Solved Assignment 2021-22 A reasonable climate is created so that employees may get much needed satisfaction and the organisation may attain its objectives.

Organisational behaviour provides a rational thinking about people and their behaviour. The major objective of organisational behaviour is to explain and predict human behaviour in organisations, so that result yielding situations can be created.

Organisational behaviour in the study of human behaviour in the organisations. Whenever an individual joins an organisation he brings with him unique set of personal characteristics, experiences from other organisations and a personal background. MPCE 031 Solved Assignment 2021-22 At the first stage organisational behaviour must look at the unique perspective that each individual brings to the work setting.

Over the time, he is affected by his work experience and the organisation as well as his personal experiences and maturity. On the other hand, the organisation is also affected by the presence or absence of the individual. Thus, it is essential that OB must study the ways in which the individuals and organisation interact with each other.

The organisational behaviour must be studied from the perspective of the organisation itself because an organisation exists before a particular individual joins in and continues to exist after he or she has left the organisation. MPCE 031 Solved Assignment 2021-22 Thus, OB is the study of human behaviour in the organisation, the individual-organisation interaction and the organisation itself. And these factors are influenced by the external environment in which the individuals and the organisation exist.

Thus, we can say that we cannot study individual behaviour completely without learning something about the organisation. On the other hand, we cannot study the organisations without studying the behaviour of the individuals working in it. This is because the organisation influences and is influenced by the people working in it. Moreover, both the individuals and the organisation are influenced by the external environment. Thus, the field of organisational behaviour is a complex field. It seeks to throw light on the entire canvas of human factor in the organisations which will include the causes and effects of such behaviour.

Organizational behavior is the academic study of how people interact within groups. The principles of the study of organizational behavior are applied primarily in attempts to make businesses operate more effectively.

The study of organizational behavior includes areas of research dedicated to improving job performance, increasing job satisfaction, promoting innovation, and encouraging leadership. Each has its own recommended actions, such as reorganizing groups, modifying compensation structures, or changing methods of performance evaluation.

The study of organizational behavior has its roots in the late 1920s, when the Western Electric Company launched a now-famous series of studies of the behavior of workers at its Hawthorne Works plant in Cicero, Illinois.1 Researchers there set out to determine whether workers could be made to be more productive if their environment was upgraded with better lighting and other design improvements. To their surprise, the researchers found that the environment was less important than social factors. It was more important, for example, that people got along with their co-workers and felt their bosses appreciated them.

3. Discuss the various models of organization.

Organizational Behavior – Our inherent power of generalization helps us predict other people’s behaviour; however, sometimes, our generalizations and predictions fail. This happens as we fail to analyze and go into the depth of the patterns affecting people’s behaviour at that particular time or period. This calls for understanding and following the systematic approach to the study of the organizational behavior. The study helps in increasing our predictive ability to understand the behavior of the people, particularly in the group or an organization, and how their behavior impacts the performance of an organization.

Almost all organizations develop the models on the basis of which behavior of the people is determined. This model depends on the assumption that organizational behavior management carries about its people, mission, and goals. It is noted that most of the organizations make the assumptions on the basis that people are not to be trusted even in the slightest matter. For instance, McGregor theories X and Y are based on quite contradictory assumptions; Argyris focuses on the immaturity and maturity level of the people providing two opposing views. The Organizational Behavior models formulated would show many different variations and kind of continuum between the two opposite poles.

Organizational behavior revolves around three main theoretical approaches: cognitive, behaviorist and social learning frameworks. These frameworks became the basis on which the organizational behavior model operates. The cognitive theory was developed by Edward and depends on the expectancy and incentive concepts, while the behaviorist framework created by Ivan Pavlov and John B.Watson relies on observation power. While the social theory depends on how the connection is created between the stimulus and response.

Organizational Behavior Model

In management, the focus is on the study of the five organizational behavior models:

· Autocratic Model

· Custodial Model

· Supportive Model

· Collegial Model

· System Model

Autocratic model

This model has its roots in the historical past and definitely became the most prominent model of the industrial revolution of the 1800 and 1900s. It gives the owners and manager’s power to dictate and form decisions while making employees obey their orders. The model asserts that employees need to be instructed and motivated to perform while managers do all the thinking. The whole process is formalized with the managers, and authority power has the right to give the command to the people, “You do this or else…”, is a general dictatorship command. As Newstrom suggests, “the psychological result of the employees is dependence on their boss, whose power to “hire, fire and perspire” is almost absolute. Employers receive less wages as they are less skilled, and their performance is also minimum, which they do it rather reluctantly as they have to satisfy the needs of their families and themselves. But there are some exceptions as many employees do give higher performance because they would either like to achieve or have a close association with their boss, or they have been promised a good reward, but overall, their performance is minimum.

Custodial Model

Now the time came when managers began to think the security of the employees is imperative- it could be either social as well economic security. Now managers have begun to study their employees’ needs; they found out that though in the autocratic setup, employees do not talk back yet they have many things to say but incapability to speak result in frustrations, insecurity, and aggressive behavior towards their employees boss. Since they are not able to display their feelings, they would vent these feelings on their family and neighbors. This causes suffering to the entire community and relationships, and this often results in bad performance. Newstrom gave the example of a wood processing plant where the employees were treated very cruelly, even to the extent of physical abuse. Since workers were not able to strike back directly, they show their aggression by destroying the good sheets of veneer, destroying the supervisor’s credibility.

Employers now had begun to think of how to develop better relations with the employees and keep them satisfied and motivated. In 1890 and 1900, many companies started the welfare programs for the employees, which began later to be known as paternalism. In the 1930s, these welfare programs evolved in many fringe benefits to provide security to the employees, which resulted in the development of the Custodial model of organizational behavior.

A successful custodial approach depends on providing economic security, which many companies are now offering as high pay scale, remunerations in the form of health benefits, corporate cars, financial packaging and many other forms of incentives. These incentives increase the employees’ satisfaction level and help them to achieve a competitive advantage. To avoid layoffs, employers also tries to “retain employees, reduce overtime, freeze hiring, encourage both the job transfers and relocations, provide early retirement incentives, and reduce subcontracting to adjust to slowdowns especially in the information technology”. (Newstrom, p.32)

The custodial approach induces employees now to show their dependency and loyalty towards the company and not to the boss or managers, or supervisors. The employees in this environment are more psychologically contended and preoccupied with their rewards, but it is not necessary they would be strongly motivated to give the performance. The studies show that though it has been the best way to make them happy employees but not productive employees, the question still remains what should be the better way? But overall, this step had been a stepping stone for creating and developing the next step.

Supportive Model

Unlike the two previous approaches, the supportive model emphasis on a motivated and aspiring leader. There is no space for any control or authoritative power in this model or on the incentives or reward schemes, but it is simply based on motivating staff through the establishment of the manager and employee relationship and the treatment that is given to employees on a daily basis.

Quite contrarily to the autocratic mode, it states that employees are self-motivated and can generate value that goes beyond their day to day role or activity. But how the employees get self–motivated? By creating a positive workplace where they are encouraged to give their ideas, there is some kind of “buy-in” in the organizational behavior setup and the direction that it takes.

One of the key aspects of the supportive model has been studies conducted at the Hawthorne Plant of Electric in the 1920s and 1930s. Elton Mayo and F.J Roethlisberger led the study to implore human behavior at work by implementing and placing keen insight into the sociological, psychological perspective in the industrial setup. They concluded that a single organization is a social system, and a worker is an important component of the system. They found that a worker is not a tool that can be used in any way but has its own behavior and personality and needs to be understood. They suggested that understanding group dynamism, including supportive supervision, is imperative to make workers contribute and be supportive.

Through the leadership organizations give the space and climate for the employees to develop, form their own thinking and take the initiative. They would take responsibility and improve themselves. Managers are oriented towards supporting the employees to give performances and not just support them through employee benefits as done in the custodial approach.

The supportive model is widely accepted chiefly in the developed nations where the needs of the employees are different as it fulfills many of the employees emerging needs. This approach is less successful in the developing nations where the social and economic need of the working class is different. In short, in the supportive model, money is not which retain the satisfaction of the employees, but it is a part of the organization’s life that has been put to the use and makes other people feel wanted.

The Collegial Model

In this scheme, the structure of an organization is developed in a way that there is no boss nor subordinates, but all are colleagues who have to work as a team. Each of the employees has to participate and coordinate with each other to achieve the target rate. No one is worried about his status or job title. Manager’s role is here like a coach whose function is to guide the team to perform and generate a positive and motivating work environment instead of focusing on his own personal growth. The team requires adopting new approaches, research and development and new technologies to better their performance.

We can also say the Collegial model is an extension of the supportive model. The success of the collegial model depends on the management’s ability to foster the feeling of partnership between the employees. This makes the employees feel important and needed. They also feel that managers are not just mere supervisors but are also giving their equal contribution to the team.

To make the collegial model success many organizations have abolished the use of bosses and subordinates during working, as these terms create the distance between the managers and subordinates. While some of the organizations have abolished the system of allotting reserved space for executives. Now any employee can park their vehicle in the common parking space, which increases their convenience and makes them more comfortable.

The manager is oriented towards the team performance while each employee is responsible for his task and towards each other. They are more disciplined and work as per the standards set by the team. In this setup, employees feel fulfilled as their contribution is accepted and well received.

The System Model

The most emerging model of the today’s corporate era is the system model. This model emerged from the rigorous research to attain a higher level of meaning at work. Today’s employees need more than salary and security from their job; they need the hours they are putting towards the organization is giving them some value and meaning. To add to it, they need the work that is ethical, respectful, integrated with trust and integrity and gives a space to develop a community feeling among the co-workers.

In the system model, the expectations of the managers are much more than getting the work done by the employees. The managers have to show their emotional side, be more compassionate and caring towards their team, and they must be sensitive towards the needs of the diverse workforce. They have to devote their attention to creating the feeling of optimism, hope, trustworthiness, courage, self-determination, and through this, they try to develop a positive work culture where the employees feel more at ease and work as if they are working for their family. This ultimately results in the long time commitment and loyalty of the employees and the success of the company.

Managers also try to foster two main concepts; authenticity and transparency and social intelligence. Managers always try to make the employees feel the part of the project and the organization and give them all the support so that they can increase their efficiency and output. In turn, the employees feel more emotionally and psychologically part of the organization and become more responsible for their actions. Employees feel more inspired, motivated, important and feel that what they are doing and what they think would be good for the organization which goes beyond their personal achievements.

Section B

4. Explain the methods of creating an effective team.

We’ve learned a little about how teams differ from groups and really “take it to the next level” as far as productivity, and we’ve learned about the types of teams we might find in the workplace. Now that we know all that . . . let’s build one!

Let’s say that we’ve determined that team work is preferable to individual work for the project we need to accomplish. We don’t want to solve the wrong problem by creating an effective team to do something a single employee could do better! And we want to understand what an effective team actually means to us . . . in this case, we’re going to call a team “effective” based on objective measurement of the team’s productivity- a manager’s assessment of their performance and member satisfaction.

Knowing that a team is the way we want to go, we’re going to take a look at four different areas and take them one at a time.

If you’re going to create an effective team, you need first to think about context—that is, all the things that surround the team that aren’t actually your team. Contextually speaking, the things that seem to matter most to effective teambuilding are:

· Adequate resources

· Leadership and structure

· Trust

· Performance evaluation and reward systems

Of all of those items, it appears that adequate resources are the item that most impacts a team’s ability to do its work. Lack of resources impedes the team’s ability to do their work, so it’s imperative that organizations support their team with the right amount of funding and tools for the job.

Team members should always agree on the work that is to be done and who is doing it, so leadership and structure are important parts of context. Team members should all contribute equally and share the workload, they should determine schedules, any training needed and so on. If they are a self-managed team, they can agree by whatever means they determined decisions might be made, and move on to next steps. Teams don’t have to have leaders, but if they do, they should be careful not to obstruct progress and expect great things from this team. (No, that’s true. It’s been shown that leaders who expect great things from their teams get great things!)

If that leader is a part of the team, then the team needs to show trust in that leader. And the members should trust one another, too. Team members will not spend time monitoring one another if they trust each other, and they’ll be more likely to take risks.

Finally, the team should have an established system for how their performance is evaluated and rewarded. Performance evaluation and reward systems keep team members individually and mutually accountable. Individual performance evaluations and reward systems aren’t consistent with high-performing teams, so these systems need to recognize team progress as much, if not more, than individual contribution.

5. Discuss any two process theories of motivation.

Process theories of motivation try to explain why behaviors are initiated. These theories focus on the mechanism by which we choose a target, and the effort that we exert to “hit” the target. There are four major process theories: (1) operant conditioning, (2) equity

Operant Conditioning Theory

Operant conditioning theory is the simplest of the motivation theories. It basically states that people will do those things for which they are rewarded and will avoid doing things for which they are punished. This premise is sometimes called the “law of effect.” However, if this were the sum total of conditioning theory, we would not be discussing it here. Operant conditioning theory does offer greater insights than “reward what you want and punish what you don’t,” and knowledge of its principles can lead to effective management practices.

Operant conditioning focuses on the learning of voluntary behaviors.

The term operant conditioning indicates that learning results from our “operating on” the environment. After we “operate on the environment” (that is, behave in a certain fashion), consequences result. These consequences determine the likelihood of similar behavior in the future. Learning occurs because we do something to the environment. The environment then reacts to our action, and our subsequent behavior is influenced by this reaction.

Equity Theory

Suppose you have worked for a company for several years. Your performance has been excellent, you have received regular pay increases, and you get along with your boss and coworkers. One day you come to work to find that a new person has been hired to work at the same job that you do. You are pleased to have the extra help. Then, you find out the new person is making ?100 more per week than you, despite your longer service and greater experience. How do you feel? If you’re like most of us, you’re quite unhappy. Your satisfaction has just evaporated. Nothing about your job has changed—you receive the same pay, do the same job, and work for the same supervisor. Yet, the addition of one new employee has transformed you from a happy to an unhappy employee. This feeling of unfairness is the basis for equity theory.

Equity theory states that motivation is affected by the outcomes we receive for our inputs compared to the outcomes and inputs of other people.

This theory is concerned with the reactions people have to outcomes they receive as part of a “social exchange.” According to equity theory, our reactions to the outcomes we receive from others (an employer) depend both on how we value those outcomes in an absolute sense and on the circumstances surrounding their receipt. Equity theory suggests that our reactions will be influenced by our perceptions of the “inputs” provided in order to receive these outcomes (“Did I get as much out of this as I put into it?”). Even more important is our comparison of our inputs to what we believe others received for their inputs (“Did I get as much for my inputs as my coworkers got for theirs

6. Describe the nature and components of organizational commitment.

Organizational commitment is defined as a view of an organization’s member’s psychology towards his/her attachment to the organization that he/she is working for. Organizational commitment plays a pivotal role in determining whether an employee will stay with the organization for a longer period of time and work passionately towards achieving the organization’s goal.

An employee’s level of commitment towards his/her work is important to know from a management’s point of view to be able to know their dedication to the tasks assigned to them on a daily basis.

A distinguished theory in organizational commitment is the Three-Component Model (TCM). According to this theory, there are three distinct components of organizational commitment:

1. Affective commitment: This is the emotional attachment an employee has towards the organization. This part of TCM says that an employee has a high level of active commitment, then the chances of an employee staying with the organization for long are high. Active commitment also means, an employee is not only happy but also engaged in the organizational activities like, participation in discussions and meetings, giving valuable inputs or suggestions that will help the organization, proactive work ethics, etc.

2. Continuance commitment: This is the level of commitment where an employee would think that leaving an organization would be costly. When an employee has a continuance in commitment level, they want to stay in the organization for a longer period of time because they feel they must stay because they have already invested enough energy and feel attached to the organization – attachment that is both mental and emotional. For example, a person over a period of time tends to develop an attachment to his/her workplace and this may be one of the reasons why an employee wouldn’t want to quit because they are emotionally invested.

3. Normative commitment: This is the level of commitment where an employee feels obligated to stay in the organization, where they feel, staying in the organization is the right thing to do. What are the factors that lead up to this type of commitment? Is it a moral obligation where they want to stay because someone else believes in them? Or is it that they feel that they have been treated fairly here and that they do not wish to take the chance of leaving the organization and finding themselves in between the devil and the deep sea? This is a situation where they believe they ought to stay.

7. Define leadership and discuss the various factors of leadership.

Leadership is the ability of an individual or a group of individuals to influence and guide followers or other members of an organization.

Leadership involves making sound -- and sometimes difficult -- decisions, creating and articulating a clear vision, establishing achievable goals and providing followers with the knowledge and tools necessary to achieve those goals.

Leaders are found and required in most aspects of society, from business to politics to region to community-based organizations.

An effective leader possess the following characteristics: self-confidence, strong communication and management skills, creative and innovative thinking, perseverance in the face of failure, willingness to take risks, openness to change, and levelheadedness and reactiveness in times of crisis.

In business, individuals who exhibit these leadership qualities can ascend to executive management or C-level positions, such as CEO, CIO or president. Noteworthy individuals who have exhibited strong leadership in the technology industry include Apple founder Steve Jobs, Microsoft founder Bill Gates and Amazon CEO Jeff Bezos.

Leadership is often defined as a process of influencing others to accomplish a task by providing purpose, direction, and motivation. A good leader sets the plan in place, organizes resources and makes sure everyone understands what’s going on, orients the team members and then lets them go. Leadership is about relationship building. It’s not always about a product, technological advance or delivering results; it is more of a human endeavor.

All leaders should be in tune with four key factors of leadership: the led, the leader, the situation and the communication. All four factors must always be considerations when exercising leadership, but at different moments, they affect each other differently. The key factor in one circumstance may have little importance in another. All four factors of leadership must be used when deciding a course, a direction of action. Mistakes happen when leaders fail to consider all four leadership factors and to see how they affect each other in a particular mission or task.

There are four major factors in leadership such as Leader, Followers, Communication and Situation. Leader must have an honest understanding of who he is, what he knows, and what he can do. It is the followers, not the leader or someone else who determines whether the leader is successful. If they do not trust or lack confidence in their leader, then they will be uninspired. To be successful, one has to convince his followers, not himself or his superiors, that he is worthy of being followed. Followers are the subordinates of a head. Leader must know his people. The fundamental starting point is having a good understanding of human nature, such as needs, emotions, and motivation. Leader must come to know his employees’ be, know, and do attributes. Communication maintains good relationship between leader and followers as well as shows the leader efficiency. A head lead through two-way communication. Much of it is nonverbal. Communication should be polite and gentle in manner. It should strengthen the human relations. There are many different situations one leader has to face. What the leader do in one situation will not always work in another. He must use his judgment to decide the best course of action and the leadership style needed for each situation. For example, leader may need to confront an employee for inappropriate behaviour, but if the confrontation is too late or too early, too harsh or too weak, then the results may prove ineffective. The situation normally has a greater effect on a leader's action than his or her traits. This is because while traits may have an impressive stability over a period of time, they have little consistency across situations (Mischel, 1968). Various forces will affect these four factors. Examples of forces are relationship with seniors, the skill of followers, the informal leaders within the organization, and how the organization is organized.

8. Discuss the scope and importance of organizational behaviour.

According to Fred Luthans, “Organisational behaviour is directly concerned with the understanding, production and control of human behaviour in organisations.”

Organizational Behaviour is concerned with the understanding, prediction and control of human behaviour in organizations. It focuses on the individuals, the groups and the organization and also on their interactional relationships. It is the study and application of knowledge about how people act with organizations. It is a human tool for human benefit. It applies broadly to the behaviour of people in all types of organizations. Wherever organizations are, there is a need to understand organizational behaviour. According to Fred Luthans, “Organisational behaviour is directly concerned with the understanding, production and control of human behaviour in organisations.

Organizational behaviour involves the study of employer action and performance. The scope of organizational behaviour extends to 3 concepts to establish a trusting relationship with employees.

Organizational behaviour is a very important aspect when it comes to being a part of a group. The group may consist of 3 people or more than 3 people. In easy terms, it is how one behaves in an organizational setting or a professional setting wherein there is communication and interface between human behaviour and the organization. The scope of Organizational Behaviour revolves around only three aspects, Individual, Inter-Individual, and Group Behaviour. Get in detail about each style.

Proper understanding of organizational behaviour can result in many positive effects on the organization and its employees. It also studies how people behave in and around the workplace, which will be the organization. However, when we talk about the scope of organizational behaviour, it extends to only 3 major concepts.

As the name itself suggests, this is where an individual is studied from personality, motivation, interests, to attitudes of an individual who is a part of an organization. Various interaction sessions and one-to-one are conducted to understand and study the individual and make a perception about them.

The study of the importance & scope of Organisational Behaviour is growing rapidly due to changing cultural, ethical and business environment of the Organization. Scope of Organisational Behaviour is increasing day by day due to the rapidly changing nature and environment of Business. A manager should concentrate on employee’s nature, reaction and response to different situations of the organization which are becoming an important part of today’s scenario.

Organizational Behaviour helps to understand different activities and actions of people in an organization & change in the workforce & their motivation. In this new era, Business manager and competition manager should concentrate on changing aspects such as employee’s nature, reaction and response to different situations of the organization.

The changing technology, political & social structure, culture & values, economic and many factors are responsible for a new structure and work environment of organizations.

Section C

9. Organization as brains.

In Images of Organization, Morgan’s use of metaphors to describe different characteristics of organizations was insightful as the analogies describe the emergence of different management theories as well as challenge leaders to look at organizational life through different lens to be more effective. The metaphors that resonated with me most are organizations as brains, organizations as cultures, and organizations as political systems.

10. Types of organization

1. Formal Organization Structure: The organization structure of jobs and positions, with specified activities and relationships, is known as formal organization structure. It is created by management, to attain the objectives of the company.

2. Informal Organization Structure: The relationship between the employees, that relies on personal attitudes, prejudices and interests rather than procedures. It is system of personal and social connection, whose creation is not needed by formal organization.

11. Development of a team

As a way to improve teamwork and help companies become more efficient, researcher Bruce Wayne Tuckman published “Tuckman’s Stages” in 1965. It talked about the four stages of development all teams move through over time: forming, storming, norming, and performing.

In 1977, Tuckman and doctoral student Mary Ann Jensen added a fifth stage called adjourning to make it the “five stages of team development.”

12. Characteristics of work motivation.

Alignment of aims, purpose and values between staff, teams and organization is the most fundamental aspect of motivation. The better the alignment and personal association with organizational aims, the better the platform for motivation. The manager plays the most important role in successful employee motivation. Motivation is a complex area. It’s different for each person.

13. Intellectual leadership.

... In general terms, intellectual leadership is defined as individual capacity to create powerful ideas that spur scientific, social, technological and institutional revolutions (Becher & Trowler, 2001;Burns, 1978;Kuhn, 1962;Macfarlane, 2012;Rooney & McKenna, 2008). While in theoretical fields of social sciences this capacity is often attributed to a professor capitalising on his/her autonomy to drive innovative investigations and publish influential papers (Boyer, 1990, Isserman, 2003Rayner, Fuller, McEwen, & Roberts, 2010), in empirically driven fields intellectual leadership is formed by collaborative influence-makers, who synergise ideas and resources across institutions to solve problems or reshape societies (Baert, 2015;Becher & Trowler, 2001;Macfarlane, 2012). ...

14. Nature of management

Management is a set of activities (including planning and decision making, organizing, leading, and controlling) directed at an organization's resources (human, financial, physical, and information) with the aim of achieving organizational goals in an efficient and effective manner.

Management is Purposeful : Management is a goal-oriented activity. For instance management of a business aims to satisfy the customer, to earn profit and to increase the goodwill and the image of the business. There is no need of management, if there are no pre-determined goals or objectives. The success of management is judged by the extent to which organizational goal are achieved.

15. Methods to make team work happen.

Teamwork does not happen on its own. It needs to be catalyzed, becoming part of workplace culture and integral to people, processes and culture. Once that happens, workplaces become more fun, productive, and creative.

Are you researching how to improve teamwork in the workplace? Sorry to be the bearer of bad news, but you’ll probably come across the same ideas wherever you look — repeated over and over again. Yawn.

16. Techniques of training team.

There are numerous methods and materials with the most effective training techniques available to help you prepare and equip employees to better do their jobs. Indeed, with so many choices out there, it can be daunting to determine which methods to use and when to use them.

And using several methods for each training session may actually be the most effective way to help employees learn and retain information. In this article, we take a close look at each of the myriad techniques, and examine their advantages and disadvantages. We also explain how you can combine the various methods into an effective blended learning approach.

17. Types of conflict.

In literature, fledgling writers learn that there are many different kinds of conflict that arise in literature. One might see a plot that outlines the “man vs. man” scenario, and another might be “man vs. nature.” When examining workplace conflict, one sees that there are four basic types, and they’re not terribly different from those other conflicts you learned in freshman literature except that they all deal with conflict among people. They are:

· Intrapersonal

· Interpersonal

· Intragroup

· Intergroup

18. Principles of conflict resolution.

Our research has identified behaviors that lead to constructive outcomes of conflict: stronger relationships, creative solutions, better solutions for the company, and more confidence that challenges can be successfully met. The six principles of conflict resolution are to affiliate, empathize, engage, own, self-restrain, and build trust. These principles and guidance for putting them into practice are discussed below.

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